CONSERVATION EDUCATION

STATE OF OHIO

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
DIVISION OF CONSERVATION
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE



COPYRIGHT 
1936-1937-1938 
DIVISION CF CONSERVATION 


I. Registration 
Recreation (Games)
Assembly - Dinner - Purpose of Camp - Program - Announcements
Recreation (Games) 

Campfire - Meeting of Camp Advisors. Introductory talk on conservation with emphasis on natural resources. Illustrated with lantern slides or pantomimed by members present. Singing popular songs and songs related to Birds - Trees - Flowers - etc.

II. A Camp Day
Regular Morning exercises
Breakfast
Morning Program
Lunch
Afternoon Program
Dinner
Campfire

III. Objectives
To create a genuine interest in nature and love for all living things both plant and animal.
To teach close observation.
To give practical information about some common flowers, trees, birds, and insects.
To stimulate interest in preserving useful kinds of wildlife.
To assist in increasing the natural beauty of home and community.
To enrich the life of the individual.
To build up wildlife natural resources.
To develop in boys and girls the right attitude toward both prey and predator.
To develop an appreciation of the great economic value to the nation of our wildlife resources.
To set an example in good sportsmanship.
To help boys and girls appreciate the out-of-doors.
To train boys and girls in better conservation practices.
To bring about cooperation of individuals and organizations in conservation activities.
To develop leaders for natural history and wildlife conservation work.
To encourage conservation of wildlife and other natural resources among rural and urban youth.
To educate farmers and the general public to the value of wildlife through practical examples of restoration and protection on farms throughout Ohio.
To develop powers of observation - become acquainted with things as they are.
To furnish a necessary foundation for work in agriculture and home making.

IV. Program
A. Crafts
The following units-of-work can readily be made by club members, boy scouts, etc., in the craftshop. One article should be selected to work on and completed before another one is started. Materials are inexpensive and easily obtainable. If necessary a small fee can be charged for the material used or an allowance made for cost of such material in the camp fee.

Expensive and complicated apparatus has no place in elementary science work. A few tools, plenty of bottles, jars, glass tubing, old window shades (to serve as charts), bits of cord, old newspapers, discarded cardboard, leftover paints, and tin cans have endless possibilities for elementary science projects. The homes of the children, the ten-cent store, the drug store, the waste heaps in any department store, printer's shop, carpenter's shop, or hardware store, are excellent and inexpensive sources of supply.

This outline contains a number of projects such as: bird houses and various construction.



ANTS - A STUDY OF AN ANIMAL COMMUNITY 

There are a number of different kinds of artificial nests. But the particular form used is of little consequence as long as the following points are kept in mind in its construction: (a} it must be so constructed that it can be tightly closed at first until the newly introduced colony has accepted its new home, which it will usually do in a few days; (b) it should have a means for keeping one side or corner of the nest moist; (c) it should be partly of glass so as to make observations easy. 

Dr. D. F. Miller. of Ohio State University assures us that a nest with the fol¬lowing description housed a colony of ants for over a year. A - is a pane of ordinary window glass (a smooth board or piece of slate would be equally good); B - is a wall made by sawing out a piece of plaster-filled wall board. This wall is best when one inch or less in height so that a hand lens can be used later in watching the in¬habitants. It should be stuck to the lower plate of glass by a thin coat of glue or paraffin. C - and D - are chambers into which the colony is introduced and E - is introduced and E - is a container for a flat piece of sponge (cloth would do) which is kept saturated with water at all times. The openings F - and G - may be plugged with cotton if not used. If each of the chambers is covered over at the top with a separate piece of glass, as indicated by the dotted lines, it makes possible the opening of one part of the nest at a time without disturbing the rest. A nest of this type molded out of cement, like the poured foundation of a house, would still be better. By pouring the bottom also, the lower plate of glass could be eliminated. Then, before the cement sets, press the upper glass cover plates down firmly so as to make a perfect union without cracks. If the glass covers do not fit closely on the nest, narrow strips of felt or heavy cloth may be glued along the upper edge of the walls. This will make an ant tight union. 

The ant colony should be located when the next is finished. Rather small forms are probably best and easiest to handle. The colony must be dug up quickly and a part of it placed in a quart fruit jar. It is very essential that the captives consist of one or more queens and a large number of workers and some eggs or young (larvae and pupae). If the fruit jar and its contents are first chilled by placing in a refrigerator for a short time they may be dumped out into the new nest without losing very many ants. The nest should be watched closely for an hour or two for leaks, which the ants will find if they exist at all. Some ants prefer dark and will settle down more quickly if the nest is kept covered at first. Do not put much dirt or debris in the nest with the ants as it only obscures the view of their activities.

By using for chamber C - a cover which has several round holes in it, food and small drops of water may be introduced easily. The kind of food preferred will depend upon  the kind of ants and is best determined by experimenting. Try sugar, honey, insects freshly killed, raw and cooked meat, and the pulverized yolk of a hard boiled egg. They are usually fond of honey, meat and egg yolk, and the latter can be placed in a bottle and kept indefinitely without spoiling. Don't give them too much food and use a variety. It may be necessary to clean out the room you use for feeding. This may be done by plugging up the doorway to the room containing the next. It will never be necessary to clean the chamber in which they have their eggs and young as they will do that better than you can. Placing an electric light or heater several inches above the nest so as to warm the cover, often causes the workers to place the eggs up against the under surface of the glass.


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(Illustration)
A balanced aquarium showing: (1) Sand (2) Toad eggs (3) Tadpoles (4) Pondwater (5) Snails (6) Slimy pond stones (7) Snail eggs (8) Pond plants (9) Toad (10) Insects (11) Fish.


AQUARIUM

White porcelain dish pans or any kind of glass containers such as; tumblers, fruit jars, glass dishes, fish bowls, or manufactured glass cases may be used for awauria. The round containers are not as good as the rectangular ones.

Place in the bottom of the aquarium an inch of clean sand. Clean the sand by putting it into a piece of cloth, and washing out all the dirt. If sand cannot be found, use small pebbles. In all aquaria, there must be a few stands of rooted water weeds, (any water plant whose narrow leaves grow under the water). Plant them in the sand. Fill the jar with pond, river or lake water, if it is easy to secure; otherwise city water will be satisfactory. Have at least one stone come to within an inch of the surface of the water, for some creatures must have shallow water in which to live.

If toad's or frog's eggs are to be hatched, put some slime, such as a slimy covered stone, leaf or stick from a pond, into the aquarium for tadpole feeding. Do not overfeed the specimens put into the aquarium. Do not overcrowd the aquarium with water life. Twenty tadpoles, a dozen water snails, to keep the water and glass clean, a small frog, one small fish, a few water bugs, are sufficient for two gallons of water. A few bread crumbs every other day, one or two live insects, an earthworm or a small bit of meat for the frog and fish is sufficient. For feeding turtles, tie a piece of raw meat to a string and hang it in the aquarium for an hour, then it should be removed. Do not place the aquarium where it will receive much direct sunlight. If in sunlight, it must be shaded by paper pasted on one side of the container. 

If there is a balance of plant and animal life in the aquarium, or a substitute, the water need not be changed. However, if the water becomes cloudy or greenish, change it. Do not put the hands into the aquarium to remove old food or dead specimens. Use a long handled spoon or dip net.

Animals which eat each other should be kept by themselves. That is, keep a separate aquarium for turtles, dragonfly nymphs, giant water-bugs and all fish excepting the goldfish, darters and suckers.


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(Illustrations)
(A) Bluebird (B) Titmouse or Brown Creeper (C) Ledge for Robin (D, E, H, I) Wren house (F) Winter Shelter (G) Woodpecker (J) Cat Protector (N) Window Shelf for Feeding (L) Right and Wrong Way of Hanging Houses (K) A gourd ready for a nest.


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BIRD HOUSES - FEEDERS - PROTECTORS

A.  Essential of a good bird house.
1. Perch unnecessary and often objectionable.
2. Ventilation through small holes under eaves and above the entrance.
3. Tight joints, as drafts are dangerous.
4. Drainage holes made in the middle of floor.
5. Color of house should be of neutral shades of brown, green or gray.
6. The house should have an opening so that one can get at the inside if necessary, in order to throw out the nests of sparrows, squirrels, mice, or hornets that sometimes usurp the place before the birds arrive.

B. Place the nests in sites as near like those the birds would select as possible.
1. Bluebirds like boxes on fence posts about garden a field.
2. Place boxes for wrong under eaves of low buildings.
3. Place ledges for phoebes under eaves of porches and houses.
4. Place martin colony houses on poles. The martins will move on to other sections unless nesting sites are provided, and unless the nests are protected against English sparrows.
5. Fasten hollow limbs and boxes to branches in orchards, groves, and shade trees to attract the woodpeckers, flickers, nuthatches, and chickadees.
6. Narrow ledges should be fastened to the rafters of barns to furnish nesting sites for barn swallows. A small platform under the nest would protect hay from droppings.

C. Care of the bird house.
1. A well-made house, once in position, need never be removed.
2. At the end of the season the old nest should be thrown out in order to eliminate parasites.

In putting up bird houses consider the comfort and safety of the nesting birds. Houses should be well out of reach of cats and other enemies. The house should not face toward the direction of prevailing storms; a south exposure is usually best. It should be placed so that it will receive some sunlight; bird houses places in locations of dense shade will seldom prove attractive. The following table will serve as a general guide in making nesting boxes, but the dimensions indicated may be varied to some extent.

(Table)

The food counters can be of almost any design and may be fastened to a fence post; tree, grape arbor, etc. The tray upon which the food is placed should have a raised edge; and there must be some sort of a roof to protect the birds from the snow and rain. Three sides, or even all four, may be open. After a few birds have begun to come regularly to the main food station in the yard, a smaller shelf may be fastened to the outside of a window sill. Birds coming to such a window feeding station can be observed at very close range. A large gourd, having a hold in one side, can be filled with grain or sunflower seeds and hung from a bush or tree. Suet, sunflower seeds, hemp seeds, cracked grain, and peanuts are good for winter birds.

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(Illustration)

a. Flower pot dish
b. Cement


BIRD BATH

Select a secluded site for placing the bird bath. A place near a group of trees or shrubs is a good location. Secure large, flat stones and place a layer of these upon the ground. The layer should cover a space 2 feet in diameter. Make a mixture of one part of sand and one part of cement and fill the spaces between the stones with it. Build another layer of stones upon the first in the same manner, but about six inches less in diameter than the first layers. Fill the spaces with cement as before. Continue adding layers until the column is about 2 1/2 feet high. Place a mass of cement upon the last layer and lay one large, flat stone upon the soft mass of cement. This large stone is to hold the vessel for the water. Upon this flat stone place another mass of cement and embed in it a flat dish (shallow) such as a flower pot container. It should be at least 15 inches in diameter. Keep the container filled with water.


(Table)


BIRD NOTEBOOK

Bird notebook with bird outlines - fill in colors. Make a block print of a bird outline and print the outline on a standard 8 1/2" x 11 1/2" sheet of plain note paper, print as many sheets as needed. Sketch in the color outlines of the birds observed in black and white or with colored crayons. The bird outline should be in the center of the upper half of the sheet. With this arrangement sufficient space will be available below the picture for: The common and scientific name of the bird; a brief description of the bird including its breeding and wintering range; where the bird was observed - forest, field, along a stream, etc; what the bird feeds on and what is its economic value. Bird outline may be made in other ways, such as by mimeograph or ditto copy, or if the observers are interested, hand sketches may be used.


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The important feature of these outlines is to emphasize key character of identification and attract attention to the beauty and usefulness of birds.


NAME OF BIRD
LOCATION OF SEST SITE
DATE OF BEGINNING OF NEST
DATE OF COMPLETION
DESCRIPTION OF NEST
DATE FIRST EGG IS LAID
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
DATE FEMALE BEGINS INCUBATION
DOES MALE ALSO SIT ON EGGS?
WHEN?
HOW LONG?
DATE FIRST YOUNG HATCH
SECOND
THIRD
ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS

NAME OF BIRD
FAMILY
DATE
LOCALITY
LENGTH OF BIRD
BILL: COLOR
LENGTH
SLENDER OR SHORT; HOOKED; BRISTLED AT BASE
COLOR: FOREHEAD
CROWN
CREST
NAPE
BACK 
RUMP
THROAT
BREAST
BELLY
EYE
LINE OVER EYE
LORES
TAIL: LONG OR SHORT; SQUARE AT END, V-SHAPED, ROUND, POINTED.
GENERAL COLOR
CROSSBARS OR BANDS; MARKED BY SPOTS
WHERE
THEIR COLOR
WINGS: LONG, NARROW; 
WINGBARS: NONE, ONE, OR WO. COLOR
COLOR ON BEND OF WING
OUTER PRIMARIES
LEGS: VERY LONG, LONG, MEDIUM, SHORT. COLOR
FEET: WEBBED. COLOR
TOES: LONG, CLAWED


SUGGESTIVE KEY FOR IDENTIFYING NESTS OF SOME COMMON BIRDS

Be sure that the children note location, construction, aterial and position of nest when found. 

I. NESTS MADE WITHOUT TWIGS
1. All grass, made in cat-tail clumps in swamps - RED WINGED BLACKBIRD.
2. Grassy, silky fibers and other soft materials.
a. In bushes or trees.
Nests wider than high, lined with thistledown, or dandelion floss, usually made on a small branch - GOLD FINCH.
If not lined, but built in vertical forks - YELLO WARBLER.
In trees.
Close to trunk of small sapling, nest lines with cottony material - RED START.
Hanging from swinging end of branches, pocket-shaped nest, 6" deep, made of fiber, strings, horsehair and the like - BALTIMORE ORIOLE. Cup-shaped nest hanging beneath a fork and attached to it, made of fibers, grass, and spider webs - RED EYED VIREO.
Nest about the size of a horse-chestnut bur, made of soft furry material outside covered with lichens and nest saddled on a twig or limb - RUBY THROATED HUMMING BIRD.
(cut off) in trees, about houses, behind shutters, untidy nests of 


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grass, straw, lined with feathers - ENGLISH SPARROW.

II NEST HAVING A FEW TWIGS OUTSIDE BUT CONTAINING GRASSES, STRAW, ROOTLETS, LEAVES, USUALLY WITH HORSEHAIR LINING AND NOT SPHERICAL.
1. Found on the ground.
Over 2" inside diameter, with many or few hairs in lining - SONG SPARROW.
2. Found in bushes or weeds
Less than 1 3/4" inside diameter, built looser than song sparrows with a few horsehairs or none - FIELD SPARROW.
Few twigs on outside, remainder of grass and thick lining of horsehair made into a beautiful cup, sometimes in vines and trees - CHIPPING SPARROW.

III. NEST MADE MOSTLY OF TWIGS
1. More than 6" across.
Cup-like, attached in chimneys, hollow trees or silos - CHIMNEY SWIFT. Found in bushes, outside made of many twigs, lining of leaves, rootlets, bits of bark, and tendrils, deeply hollowed, 3" inside diameter - BROWN THRASHER.
Found in thickets or scrubby trees, lining of leaves and rootlets, deeply hollowed, 3" or less inside diameter - CATBIRD.
Usually in evergreens, nest built similar to the above but looser, over 3 1/2" inside diameter - BLUE JAY.
2. Less than 6" across.
Found in trees, shallow flimsy platform, with no lining - MOURNING DOVE. 
Found in hollow trees, or bird boxes, nest lined with feathers - HOUSE WREN.

IV. NESTS CONTAINING AN INNER LAYER OF MUD
Made with grass, 4" wide inside, on limb of tree - ROBIN
Made with grass; over 4" wide, in pine or spruce tree - BRONZED CRACKLE.
Made with grass or straw, lined with feathers, open at top, cup-shaped, on barn rafters - BARN SWALLOW.
Made of a little mud, mixed with silky fibers and moss, plastered on bridge wall or house beam - PHOEBE.

V. IN SAND BANKS
Birds nesting in colonies - BANK SWALLOWS.
Birds nesting singly - KINGFISHER.
BIRDS WHICH OCCUR IN FLOCKS IN WINTER.
Tree Sparrow, Snowflake, Junco, Horned Lark, Redpoll, Crossbill, Pine Grosbeak, Evening Grosbeak, Duck.
WINTER RESIDENTS OR VISITANTS
Brown Creeper, Winter Wren, Herring Gull, Golden-crowned Kinglet.
PERMANENT RESIDENTS
Barred Owl, Great Horned Owl, Screech Owl, Crow, Cedar Waxwing, Blue Jay, Goldfinch, Cooper Hawk, Black Duck, Purple Finch, Bobwhite, Quail, English Sparrow, Song Sparrow, White-breasted Nuthatch, Hairy Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Red-headed Woodpecker, Ruffed Grouse, Starling, Ring-necked Pheasant, Red-shouldered Hawk, Sharp-shinned Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Sparrow Hawk, Chickadees.
Which of the above birds are game birds, water birds, song birds, and birds of prey?


WINTER FEEDING
Winter feeding is one of the most effective game conservation measures at the disposal of farmers or game managers. Some of the most effective ways of feeding are to provide unharvested standing corn near good cover; shocks of unhusked corn, which are opened regularly and reconstructed in tepee fashion; unharvested small grains; and unthreshed small grains left in the sheaf and stored for the purpose. Sheaf grain can be set out in the snow. Grain to be left standing can be planted in places where feeding will be most effective. Standing, shocked, or sheaf grain (corn, wheat, buck-


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wheat, sorghum, millet, and other small grain) is preferable to loose shelled grain. If shelled grain is used, it is well to construct corn shook or brush shelters, providing both shelter and food and at the same time plenty of openings for escape in emergencies. Greens, such as alfalfa leaf meal, hay screenings, or lettuce scraps, will generally be relished by winter birds. A small plot of winter wheat will also supply a green food attractive to many.

Emergency feeding measures, when required, may include shoveling through the snow to the earth and scattering grain on the exposed ground; building brush or cornstalk tepee shelters and placing grain inside; distributing shelled grain on hard packed sled roads where automobiles are not common; or taking other steps that local conditions may suggest.

Suet is the principal attraction for birds of carnivorous tastes, such as the woodpeckers, nuthatches, chickadees, and creepers; and breed scraps, scratch feed, and sunflower and other seeds for the granivorous birds, including juncoes, song-sparrows, crossbills, finches, and many others. Fruit eaters, sometimes will come to quartered apples, soaked raisins, or partially dried grapes.

Sunflowers, goldenglows, cosmoses, and related plants hold their seeds fairly well and are greatly relished by various birds. Other common flowers of value to seed eaters are princes-feather, love-lies-bleeding, forget-me-not, and the poppy. Millets are excellent for planting to feed wild birds.


THEORIES OF THE CAUSES OF MIGRATION

Migration has long since become a definite hereditary habit that recurs in annual cycles, probably because of physiological stimuli associated with the productive period. In seeking its origin, it is necessary to study the history of the birds' occupation of their present ranges, and from the information available to consider what appears to be reasonable theories. There are three theories: The Northern Ancestral Home Theory: - Northern Hemisphere once more adaptable for permanent home of birds, this was changed by glacial period. The Southern Ancestral Home Theory: - Tropics were once the permanent home of birds until overpopulation caused migration to points where during mating season competition was not so keen. Winter caused the return of the birds. The theory of Photoperiodism:- Quantity of light and length of day the primary cause of the annual movements of birds. The regularity of the birds movements with the change of seasons strongly support this theory.


ROUTES OF MIGRATION

There is also infinite variety in the routes covered during migration by different species. In fact, the choice of migration highways is so wide that it seems as if the routes of no two species coincide. Differences in distance traveled, in time of starting, in speed of flight, in geographical position, in latitudes of breeding and wintering grounds, and in other factors, all contribute to this great variation of migration routes.

It has frequently been observed that migrating birds have a tendency to follow major topographic lines on the earth's surface when their trend is in the general direction of the birds' journey. Bird migration is generally thought of as a north-and-south movement, with the lanes of heavier concentration following the coasts, mountain ranges, and principal river valleys.


ADDITIONAL INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Make maps showing regions where the ducks breed and where they winter.

Make a sand table representation of a duck reserve.

Trace migration routes on maps.

Estimate the distance traveled in migration.

Make charts of the types of bills and beaks of birds and the food they eat.

Make a chart of the different types of feet.

Plan "Bird News" along the line of a good newspaper, with articles on the arrivals, departures, births, deaths, home buildings, doings of outlaws, pictures, poems, songs, humor, editorials, etc.


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Solve the problem: the use of the tail feathers to a bird. (Compare to an aeroplane).

Learn to recognize 20-30 common birds.

Collect pictures to illustrate protective coloration.

Look up federal migratory laws and game conservation laws.

Why are state, federal, and international laws necessary for the protection of birds?

Why are state, federal, and international laws necessary for the protection of birds?

Give enemies and practices responsible for decrease in bird life.

Why does the quail need special laws for its protection?

How does the quail need special laws for its protection?

How does bird banding aid in the protection and understanding of birds life?

How are birds equipped for flight? (Shape of wing, tail, head, bones). Compare with an aeroplane.

Photographing birds.

Name some birds that have become extinct.

Outline value of game birds.

Make salt and flour models of birds; paint and shellac.

Make papier-mache or clay models; paint and shellac.
Sketch and pain birds in characteristic poses.
Make a bird habitat chart such as: Birds of air, field, and orchard; birds of trees; birds of marsh and shore.

Form an Audubon Club.

Games such as: (1) Bird Description, have cards on which is written the description of birds. Draw a card and slowly read the description. The one guessing the name first is given the card. Anyone making a wrong guess has to give up a card. (2) Bird Silhouettes, either the outline of the bird is cut out of black paper or the form of the bird is thrown on a cloth by a light. To each contestant is given a sheet of paper. The one identifying the greatest number wins. (3) Sign Language, this game is similar to pantomimes. A player does the whole thing by the sign language. He may come otu and point to himself. This means "I". He then flutters his hands like a bird. This means, "I will fly like a bird." He may then imitate the flight of a swallow. It may be a hawk. He shows that it is not a hawk by measuring. He holds his hands apart the length of a swallow and shakes his head. He then holds his hands apart the length points into the air and with a sweeping motion of the hand indicates the spiral soaring of the hawk. Perhaps, he now imitates a frog. He again comes to the hawk and by signals shows that the hawk is looking for the frog, and when he sees the victim pounces upon it and eats it. The hand held ever the eyes mean "Look". Pat the abdomen and smile means, "That tasted good." Or the food might have given a stomach ahce. This game gives an unusual opportunity for ingenuity. The one guessing the name of the bird gives the next pantomime.

Illustrate on a state map of Ohio the names and locations of our state parks.
1. Park supervision and control.
2. Number of acres in each park.
3. Admission charges.
4. Things of interest in each park.

Our game warden service.
1. General plan of organization.
2. Responsibilities and duties of a warden.
3. How he makes his arrest.
4. Where he takes the arrested person for trial.

What new bills did the Conservation Department present to the 1935-36-37 legislature for approval?
1. District representatives.
2. How the bills are formulated.
3. Discuss the merits of each bill.

A set of drinking glasses can serve to reproduce the bird songs. Select glasses which, when filled with water to just the right level, will give notes of a clear and accurate pitch. A whole set of two octaves or more can be arranged, playing the highest note at the right. The glasses, arranged on a piece of felt or soft cloth, may be played by tapping the outside with a little hammer, or a pencil.


11-A
(Illustrations)
Wood Thrush
Bobolink
Barn Swallow
Cedar Waxwing
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Song Sparrow
Red-headed Woodpecker
Starling
White-breasted Nuthatch


11-B
(Illustrations)
English Sparrow
Red-Winged Blackbird
Catbird
Humming Bird
Robin 
Purple Martin
Cardinal
House Wren
Bluebird


11-C
(Illustrations)
Flicker
Meadow Lark
Baltimore Oriole
Brown Thrasher
Blue Jay


11-D
(Illustrations)
Barn Owl
Great Horned Owl
Screech Owl


11E
(Illustrations)
Hawk
Red-Shouldered Hawk
Cooper's Hawk
Sharp-Shinned Hawk


12-A
(Illustrations)
Woodcock
Wilson Snipe
Ruffed Grouse
Partridge
Bob-White
Chukar


12-B
(Illustrations)
Reeves Pheasant
Ring-Necked Pheasant


13-A
(Illustrations)
Wood Duck
Mallard
Green-Winged Teal
Blue-Winged Teal
Red Head
Shoveller


13-B
American Merganser
Canvas Back
Lesser Scaup
American Coot
Ruddy Duck


13-C

Barn Swallow. Hirundo erythrogaster

DESCRIPTION: A medium sized, swift flying song bird. Color - Male - Glistening steel blue shading to black above; wing black with dark greenish gloss; chin, breast and underpart bright chestnut and becoming lighter toward tail; bill and feet black; tail deeply forked and slender. Female - Smaller and paler. Young - Duller and lighter than adult. Size - 5.75 to 7.75 inches. Song - Succession of twittering notes often followed by clear liquid notes; call note is a gentle twitter; when excited emits an emphatic "Killie, tistie, tistie."

HABITAT: Usually found in open country about farms and villages. Their favorite haunts are around and in barns or other farm buildings. Prefer to be near water.

FOOD: Food consists entirely of insects. They feed mostly flying through the air, catching flying insects, beetles, bottle flies and horse flies. The young are also fed on insects. 

NESTING: Nests are built of mud in masonry style in barns or other farm buildings, mostly against the side wells or rafters, with no bottom support. The inside is lined with grass or feathers. Eggs - 4 to 6. Color - White with brown spots. Incubation requires about 13 days. Broods - Two, and under favorable conditions three broods are hatched each year. The young are able to leave the nest in about 16 days.

MIGRATION: A common summer resident of all settled sections of North America arriving about April 1st, and leaves for the warmer climates of the south about October 1st.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Bard Swallow is a quiet, peaceful bird. Shows great skill in nest building.

CONSERVATION: A very useful bird and friend of the farmer. It not only destroys harmful crop insects, but the flies and insect pests of the farmer's live stock. It deserves careful protection.


Cedar Waxwing. Bombycilla cedrorum

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Upper parts rich greyish brown with plum colored tints on the crest; a velvet black line on forehead runs through the eye and back of the conspicuous crest; chin is black; breast is dark slots; shades to yellow on under part of body; wings have elongated secondaries with brilliant vermilion tips and yellow bands across the ends; feet and bill dark. Female - Smaller than male, no red tips on wing; chin less black. Young - Lighter coloring and no black behind eye or on throat. Size - Little larger than the Bluebird. Length - 6.5 inches. 

Song - A "wheesy lisp," can scarcely be heard 20 feet away. It resembles "see-see." Call notes similar to "twee-twee-zee." Young birds have louder call than adults.

HABITAT: Common anywhere or most any time among the trees and shrubs. Breeds throughout North America to Alaska.

FOOD: Feeds on insects, worms and fruit (mostly wild fruit) is very fond of cherries.

NESTING: Nest is made in trees of  orchard, field or forest from 4 to 40 feet from the ground. Is bulky; composed of twigs, plant fibers, rags, paper and twine. Lined with the finer of the materials. Eggs - Oviate, 4 to 6 are laid. Dull, pale bluish with dark specks. Incubation - Requires from 12 to 16 days. Both male and female sit on nest. Broods - 1 to 2 broods are hatched each year. The young leave the nest in about 16 days.

MIGRATION: Is of the gypsy roving type but has no choice of seasons and can be found winter and summer in same localities.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Cedar Waxwing destroys a large number of harmful insects and worms. It feeds on elm beetles, canker worms, grubs and caterpillars which infest our shade and orchard trees. They are fond of cherries, but this is a small loss, compared to their benefit to man by their destruction of harmful insects.


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Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Zanelodia Ludoviciana

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Head, throat and upper parts jet black; breast marked with a shield shaped patch of rich carmine or rose-red which extends beneath the wings over the under coverts; under parts white; lower back white tipped with black; primaries white at the base, tail tipped with white. Female - Marked like a sparrow; upper parts gray-brown, pale ochre, and brownish gray; a buff line on the crown; dull orange replaces the rose breast of male; underparts light buff streaked with gray. Young - Like female; males gradually acquiring adult characteristics. Size - 7.5 to 8.5 inches. Female somewhat smaller. Song - Sings very freely; a rich, rolling, continuous warble which is among the finest of woodland notes.

HABITAT: Found throughout eastern North America as far north as Main and Canada. Enters in Cuba, Central America, and South America.

FOOD: Composed largely of beetles and a variety of injurious insects. Has a great liking for potato beetles.

NESTING: The next is loosely woven of rootlets, twigs, plant fibers lodged in thick undergrowth or in trees 5 to 20 feet from ground. Eggs - 2 to 4, dull greenish spotted with redding brown. Father assists in duties of incubation, also devoted in caring for flock. One brood each year.

MIGRATION: Comes in May and leaves for the south in September.

INTERESTING FACTS: The female is so unlike the male in appearance that few would recognize the relationship. Grosbeaks are not as common as they should be on account of their attractive plumage which is used as trimming for ladies hats, consequently they are shot in season and out. It has well earned the name "Potato-but" bird for no less than one-tenth its food consists of potato bugs.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Besides its beautiful plumage and sweet song it is one of our most beneficial birds to the farmer. It eats large quantities of beetles, especially potato bugs.


Bobolink. Dolichonyx oryzivorous

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Middle of back streaked or patched with creamy-buff; lower back and upper tail feathers white; a patch of white on shoulders; head, face and under parts of body black; patch of yellow on nape of neck. Size - From 7.5" to 8" long. Song - Alarm note and autumnal call, note metallic; song an exuberant, bubbling melody. Female - Ground color.

HABITAT: Meadows and fields.

FOOD: Mostly insects.

NESTING: Concealed by tall grasses on ground, or at base of a tuft or small bush. Type of nest; frail structure, built of dried grasses and weed stems. Eggs - 4 to 6; extremely variable in color, blue to gray, speckled dark brown. Incubation period 10 days. Brood only one.

MIGRATION: In Ohio. Arrives in late April and leaves in September.

INTERESTING FACTS: Male is reckless, "happy-go-lucky"; called the ricebird in the south where it eats much rice. In South, slaughtered as a game bird.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: In its consumption of insects very beneficial; probably its greatest harm is to small farmers owning patches of rice.


Song Sparrow. Melospiza cinera melodia

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Crown, rufous-brown, with grayish line through center; feathers of back streaked with black; on side of throat, black or blackish streaks; on breast, wedge-shaped streaks of black and rufous-brown, tending to form a large blotch on center. (This blotch is sometimes called a "collar button".) Female - Like male. Size - Close to that of English sparrow. Call and song - Alarm note, a simple metallic "chip"; most familiar song beginning with full, round note three time repeated, then bursts into a short, sweet lively strain, sung hastily and energetically

HABITAT: Shrubbery, fences, brooks and swamps.

FOOD: Weed seeds and insects.


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Song Sparrow (Continued)

NESTING: Commonly built on ground, concealed under tuft of grass, brush heap, or in bushes. Type of nest: constructed of grasses, weeds, dead leaves, bark and trash of all kinds lined with finer materials, sometimes with rootlets or hair. Eggs - Vary from 3 to 7. Usually a faint, dull blue, but varying in coloration; marks reddish-brown. Incubation period - From 10 to 14 days. Broods 2 or 3. 

MIGRATION: Resident in southern and central sections of Ohio; partially resident in northern section.

INTERESTING FACTS: Most persistent singer of all sparrows; sings at all seasons and at all times. Brave, fearless in attacking enemies. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destroys a large number of harmful insects and weed seeds.


Wood Thrush. Hylocichla mustelina

DESCRIPTION:  Color - Male and female alike. - Upper parts bright cinnamon brown; under parts white, marked with large, roundish or wedge-shaped blackish spots.

Size - 7.5" to 8.5". Song and call - Call notes - a liquid "quist" and a sharp "pitpit"; Song - Usually a series of triplets, then a trill; sweet, tender and restful.

HABITAT: Low, swampy woodland; dry, wooded hillsides, thickets near edge of woods and villages.

FOOD: Probably nearly three-fourth insects; comparatively little fruit.

NESTING: Damp, thick woods; low trees and thickets along water; orchards, ornamental trees; gardens; along roadsides. Neat; often a foundation of dry leaves covered with grasses, fibers, weed stems, sometimes strips of paper; plastered together with mud and rotten woods; lined with rootlets or dry leaves. Eggs - Delicate blue, spotted sometimes similar to robin's eggs, but smaller; three to five. Incubation period - 12 days. Broods; ones or two a year.

MIGRATION: Reaches Ohio late in April, leaves late in September or early in October.

INTERESTING FACTS: The robin and the bluebird are its cousins. It is rather shy and retiring, but less so than most thrushes.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION:  Very beneficial to farmer and fruit grower because it eats a large number of harmful insects.


Red-headed Woodpecker. Melanerpes erythrocephalus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male and female alike - Head, neck and upper part of breast bright crimson; back, glossy blue-black; rump and tail feathers white; other touches of black and white. Size - 9.25" to 9.75" long. Calls - Varied; tones resembling those of horn.

HABITAT: Woodland, orchard, or shade tree.

FOOD: About one-third animal and two-thirds vegetable matter.

NESTING: Dead limb or trunk of tree, telegraph pole, fence post. Eggs - Pure white, somewhat glossy; from 4 to 6. Broods - Generally one, sometimes two in a season. Incubation - Fourteen days.

MIGRATION: Late April or early May; late September or early October; an occasional resident in winter.

INTERESTING FACTS: Only bkacj abd wgute burd wutg red gead abd becj, Drills in bark of trees for insect food.


The Starling. Sturnus vulgaris

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Black or blackish with small buff tips above and whitish tips below with a green or purplish gloss; wings and tail brownish black with tips and edges buff; bill -- dark brown changing to yellow in January or February;  iris--dark brown; feet and lags reddish brown. Female - Similar to male, but duller.


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Young - Much lighter. Size - Similar to robin; from 7.50" to 8.50"; wing spread about 15.50". Female smaller than male. Song - Not so musical; a rather high clear whistle or rasping cry and many gutteral notes and chattering. Imitates notes and songs of many other birds.

HABITAT: Common in eastern section of North America, west to Rocky Mountains, north to southern Ontario and Quebec, south to Gulf of Mexico. 

FOOD: About one-third animal and two-thirds vegetable matter.

NESTING: Dead limb or trunk of tree, telegraph pole, fence post. Eggs - Pure white, somewhat glossy; from 4 to 6. Broods - Generally one, sometimes two in a season. Incubation - Fourteen days.

MIGRATION: Late April or early May; late September or early October; an occasional resident in winter.

INTERESTING FACTS: Only black and white bird with red head and neck. Drills in bark of trees for insect food.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Much more helpful than harmful.


The Starling. Sturnus vulgaris

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Black or blackish with small buff tips above and whitish tips below with a green or purplish gloss; wings and tail brownish black with tips and edges buff; bill-- dark brown changing to yellow in January or February; iris--dark brown; feet and legs reddish brown. Female - Similar to male, but duller.


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Young - Much lighter. Size - Similar to robin; from 7.50" to 8.50"; wing spread about 15.50". Female smaller than male. Song - Not so musical; a rather high clear whistle or rasping cry and many gutteral notes and chattering. Imitates notes and songs of many other birds.

HABITAT: Common in eastern section of North America, west to Rock Mountains, north to southern Ontario and Quebec, south to Gulf of Mexico.

FOOD: Insects, worms, caterpillars, beetles, bees and wasps. Its vegetable food consists largely of fruit, both wild and cultivated. It also feeds on grains. 

NESTING: Holes in trees, crevices of buildings, under eaves, around rocks and cliffs or in bird boxes. Nests are made of grass, leaves, straw and lined with feathers or moss. Eggs - 5 to 8; pale blue or whitish and glossy. Incubation - 11 to 14 days. Two to three broods are hatched yearly.

MIGRATION: The starling flocks in large numbers. Some seek the warmer climates during late fall, but many remain in the northern section throughout the winter. They do not seem to endure the extreme cold of the north and many are frozen to death.

INTERESTING FACTS: The first successful introduction of the starling from Europe was made in 1890, by Mr. Eugene Schefflin of New York City. Starlings do not endure extreme cold of the north, many young hatched late in fall have been found frozen in the nest; however, they are multiplying very rapidly and are quite numerous west to the Rocky Mountains.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The starling is a destructive enemy to some other birds, and especially the bluebird and the house wren. They have been known to kill young pheasants. 57% of the sterling's diet consists of insects and worms and 43% vegetable. They are very destructive to newly planted grain and seeds, and seem to be very fond of the young sprouts of grain and garden seeds.


White-breasted Nuthatch. Sitta carolinensis carolinensis

DESCRIPTION: A medium sized song bird of the forest and trees. Color - Male - Back of neck black, back dark gray, which lightens to a dark bluish gray on wings, and lightens to under parts; which from throat, breast and back to tail are white with light brown on under tail coverts. Tips of wings whitish; tail dark with light bluish gray tints; feet and legs olive gray; bill dark. Size - 5.00" to 6.15" long. Female smaller than male. Female - Similar to male except head, which is not so dark. Song - Soft "tew, tew, tew, tew." Call - Nasal "Ank, ank, ank," so soft they cannot be heard more than a few feet away.

HABITAT: Common in United States from Georgia to Canada and west to the Rocky Mountains.

FOOD: Sap end wood boring beetles, insects, worms and larvae or eggs of caterpillars and other worms. Also feeds on weed seeds and tree seeds.

NESTING: Nests usually in a tree cavity, or deserted woodpecker's hole. Sometimes the birds themselves excavate a hole in decayed wood. Nests are made of shreds of bark, fine grass, leaves, hair and feathers. Eggs - 5 to 8; cream white with small brown specks. Incubation - 14 to 14 days. One brood is hatched yearly, about middle of April.

MIGRATION: The bird is non-migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS: The White-breasted nuthatch is strictly a tree bird. It often creeps down a tree head first. Its sharp, long bill enables it to bore through the bark of trees for sap or insects or beetles under the bark. Its claws are long, sharp and curved. The male, feeding the female during incubation and sharing with her in the care of young.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The white-breasted nuthatch is a great benefit to the fruit grower. 79% of its diet consists of harmful tree insects that infest orchards and other trees. It also destroys weed seeds. It deserves careful protection.


Red-winged Blackbird. Agelaius phoeniceus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - black from head to tail, with rather greenish gloss. Wing coverts, red varying to deep orange; iris brown; bill and feet dark. Female - lighter in color, being rusty, grayish brown with light markings, Size: female is 


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smaller than male. Song - babble of noise or rather whistling squeaks, as "clicks, clacks", or squeaky "che-we-eee" and "ok-o-lee".

HABITAT: Common over eastern North America from Gulf of Mexico to Manitoba and New Brunswick.

FOOD: Grubs, worms, caterpillars, cankerworms, grasshoppers, ants and bugs; weed seeds, wild rice and some grain.

NESTING: Usually nests in small bushes or tall grass in swamp or marsh land. Nest, which is deeply cupped, is made of vegetable fiber and dried grass. Eggs - 4 to 6; bluish green with dark specks. Incubation - 10 to 15 days. One brood yearly. 

MIGRATION: Red-wing leaves for the warmer southern climates about the first of November and returns North about the first of March. They are occasionally seen in Ohio during the winter.

INTERESTING FACTS: Red-wing leaves for the warmer southern climates about the first of November and returns North about the first of March. They are occasionally seen in Ohio during the winter.

INTERESTING FACTS:  Red-wing flocks in large numbers. The males precede the females a few days in their northward flight. They are fast walkers.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: They destroy numbers of harmful insects, caterpillars, worms and grasshoppers. Their diet in the fall at the time the rice and grain fields are ripening is 70% weed seeds, grasshoppers and out cut worms. Considered beneficial.


The English Sparrow. Passer domesticus

DESCRIPTION:  Small bird common in all sections. Color - Male - above ashy gray with strips of black on back intermingling with chestnut color. Chestnut patch behind eye; black patch on throat; tail dark, wing bar and tips white; under parts, ash-gray; bill and feet, horn color. Female - more brownish above, streaked with black; under parts brownish white. Size - 5.50" to 6.25" long. Male and female about same size. Song - has no musical song; only a noisy chirp and chatter.

HABITAT: All sections of North America. Prefers the shelter of houses and buildings.

FOOD: All kinds of vegetables, fruit, discarded garbage and grains. Few insects are eaten; caterpillars are fed to the young.

NESTING: Early spring. Nests are made in shelter of eaves, crevices of houses, buildings, and holes in trees. They are poorly constructed of grass, sticks, and feathers or made by additions to other birds' nests. Eggs - 4 to 7, whitish with dark specks. Incubation - 14 days. 3 to 4 broods are hatched each summer.

MIGRATION: The English sparrow is always found in summer and winter in the same location.

INTERESTING FACTS: A native of Europe, the sparrow was imported to America from England in 1850 by Nicholas Pike and other directors of the Brooklyn Museum to exterminate the Ennomos Caterpillar, and other injurious tree pests. They multiply very rapidly, and are more numerous than any other bird in America.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The English sparrow is much disliked on account of its destructiveness, lack of song and slovenly ways. However, it is claimed to have exterminated the Ennomos caterpillar (Ennomos Subsignaria) an infectious tree pest, from New York and other eastern cities. It also promises to be an aid to the farmer in exterminating the newly introduced "alfalfa weevil", which threatens the alfalfa industry of Utah and other western states.


Catbird. Galeoscoptes Carolinensis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - generally slate-gray above and below; top of head black; wings nearly black; tail black. Female - similar. Size - Between robin and bluebird. Song - beautiful, resembling that of brown thrasher, occasionally interspersed with imitations of other birds' songs and calls. Call - resembling cat's cry.

HABITAT: Along river banks, in lowland thickets and swampy tangles; common in lawn and garden shrubbery and along roadside thickets.

FOOD: Large quantities of insects, some harmful, some harmless; fruit, cultivated and wild--especially the wild mulberry.

NESTING: In thickets near water; in briar tangles, bushes and low trees. Nest-- mass of twigs, leaves, pieces of paper, grasses, etc., lined with strips of grapevine bark, fine rootlets, grasses, etc. Eggs - 4 to 5; deep, glossy, greenish-blue or bluish-green, unmarked. Incubation - 10 to 14 days. Broods--one to three a year,


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rarely three.

MIGRATION: Reaches Ohio late in April, and leaves early in September.

INTERESTING FACTS: Somewhat shy and retiring; usually sings from hidden places.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Decidedly beneficial in destruction of harmful insect.


Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Trochilus columbris

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - above, a shining bronze green; wings and tail dusky brown with purplish reflections; throat--a beauitful metallic ruby-red, margined with white-gray at breast; under parts a dull grayish color, washed with metallic green on sides, except on flanks, which are cottony white. Female - similar to male but without throat patch; throat and lower plumage chiefly grayish or whitish. Size - male, 3.25 to 3.60; female a little larger. Song or call - probably no real song or definite call; male lets out shrill, squealing sounds, when battling in air with opponent; short, repeated chirps or squeaks before breeding; sound compared to buzzing of bumblebee when searching for insects and nectar.

HABITAT: Orchard or shade tree on cultivated land; open woodland or deep forest.

FOOD: Mainly insects; a little nectar.

NESTING: Tree, bush or vine (wild trumpet, a favorite vine) near flowers. Nest-- Externally it is covered with lichens of various shades, so arranged as to resemble shingles or tiles; webs of spiders and insects to fasten nest to branch and to fasten lichen exterior to nest lining, which is composed of different kinds of plan down. Eggs - white and unmarked; about size and shape of dried white beams; 2 eggs. Broods - 1 to 2. Incubation - 13 to 14 days.

MIGRATION: First of May and last of September.

INTERESTING FACTS: Carry pollen from blossom, visiting some flower box or garden spot at same hour each day. Male is pugnacious and remarkably strong.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Eats harmful insects and distributed pollen.


Cardinal. Cardinalis cardinalis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - bright red, brightest on crest and sides of head; feathers on back and rump have grayish edges; bill is light red; throat and parts around base of bill, black. Female - less brilliant. Size - 7.50" to 9.00" long. Song - beautiful; tones rich and full; whistle; strong and clear.

HABITAT: Thicket, park, garden, yard.

FOOD: Chiefly grain, including wood seeds; insects, berries, nut kernels.

NESTING: Bush, vines, low in trees. Nest--twigs, coarse grass, trash; lining, fine grass and rootlets; generally carelessly built. Eggs - 3 to 5; white or tinted with blue, gray or green; they have reddish-brown, gray or lavendar dots. Broods - 2 to 3. Incubation - 14 days.

MIGRATION: Cardinal not migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS: The cardinal is now on the songbird list and cannot be caged as it once was. Male assists in care of young birds.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable because of its destruction of harmful insects and weed seeds.


Purple Martin. Progne subis subis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - deep glossy bluish purple turning to black on wings and tail; bill, legs and feet black. Female - similar to male, but lighter, turning to whitish gray on under parts; a narrow white patch on side under wing. Size 7.25" to 8.50" long; female somewhat smaller than male. Song - deep, musical note "perro, perro, perro". Also loud rich chirruping or harsh squeak. Alarm note "kerp"; a whistling note "koo-kee-koo" with two syllables much like "bo-beep".

HABITAT: North America from Alberta, Manitoba and southern Quebec south to the gulf coast. Winters from British Guiana to Brazil.

FOOD: Insects: worms and beetles, including the cotton ball weevil, clover weevil 


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and other pests.

NESTING: Usually in open country not far from water. Nests, holes in trees, cliffs, cavities in buildings, or in bird houses; made of twigs, grass, leaves and feathers, sometimes with mud as a foundation. Eggs - 4 to 5; pure white. Incubation - 12 to 15 days. Brood - 1, possibly 2 in warmer southern sections.

MIGRATION: Migrates from the northern sections, about September 30th, to the warmer southern climates. Returns north about the first of April.

INTERESTING FACTS: Purple martin is believed to have been originally a bird of the tropics. They do not withstand the cold, wet climates; however, they are widely distributed throughout the North Temperate Zone. They generally gather in large flocks in the fall; as they journey southward, the flocks increase in size.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The purple martin has been a favorite with mankind from time immemorial. They destroy all kinds of harmful insects, mosquitos, worms, beetles and weevils, including the destructive cotton boll weevil. They deserve our careful protection.


American Robin. Marula Migratoria

DESCRIPTION: A medium size song bird. Color - Male - upper parts dark slate; breast reddish-brown. Head black with little white on chin and throat. Underparts and lining of wings is whitish mixed with slate; tips of tail feathers white; bill yellow, with dark slate at tip. Feet black with yellow beneath. Female - similar to male, but duller. Head brownish. Size - 10". Song - a high cheery note; varies extensively; very musical, "chirp-chirp, pip-peep" with sound of "Phoebe".

HABITAT: North America, east of the Rocky Mountains. Breeds from Central United States northward to the Arctic coast. Prefers to stay near the habitat of man rather than the forest.

FOOD: Worms and insects, especially cut worms, white grubs, ground beetles and ceterpillars. Also feeds on cherries, berries and other small fruits.

NESTING: Nest in forks of trees, bushes, eaves of buildings, porches or bridges. Nest is made of grass, leaves, small sticks and string, and mud with fine grass for lining. Eggs - 4 to 5; bluish green. Incubation - 12 to 14 days. Broods - 2 young are able to leave the nest in 12 to 14 days after hatching.

MIGRATION: Migrates in large numbers northward as early as February. Returns to the warmer southern climates in early fall. Some remain north all winter in favorable locations.

INTERESTING FACTS: Breast is very plump or full, and being red in color is very noticeable. It is most always referred to as the "Robin Red Breast." The robin is usually well scattered during summer, going in pairs or small flocks. On the ground they go with a short hop rather than a walk.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The robin is rated as a beneficial bird, doing much more good than harm. Injurious insects constitute 40% of his diet, while his consumption of cultivated fruit is only 4%.


Bluebird. Sialis sialis sialis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Above, rich azure blue, becoming paler on sides, throat and breast and underparts, chestnut brown running to white on under parts; under tail coverts pale blue; flight feathers tipped with blackish; under wing coverts pale grayish blue above, tinged with brown; becoming lighter on under parts; greater coverts and secondaries have pale whitish edges, Size - 5.70" to 7" long. Female smaller than male. Song - Alarm note is peculiar chatter; song is a soft musical "cherry-cherry-dearie", "cher-wee", or "turwee"; not confined to male as some females are singers.

HABITAT: Common in central and eastern North America, west to the Rocky Mountains and north to southern sections of Canada, and south to the Gulf of Mexico.

FOOD: Consists of a large variety of insects; such as, worms, caterpillars, beetles 


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grasshoppers, and ants.

NESTING: In hollow limb, hole in trunk, deserted woodpecker's nest, or bird house; from 3 to 50 feet up; composed chiefly of grass, but often with leaves, rootlets, fine twigs, hair or a few feathers. Eggs - 3 to 7; light blue to white. Incubation - 12 days. Broods - 2 to 3 each year.

MIGRATION: One of the earliest birds to appear in the spring (around middle of March) Leaves about November for southern New York or the Gulf States.

INTERESTING FACTS: The bluebird although giving appearances of a gentle bird is very brave end aggressive. He often chases woodpeckers away from worms they have exposed.

CONSERVATION: Bluebird is useful as well as beautiful; since it destroys large quantities of harmful insect pests.


House Wren. Troglodytes aedon

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - Upper parts are mixed cinnamon brown and olive brown becoming more ruddy on rump and upturned tail; back has undefined dark bars; wings and tail finely barred with sepia; sides similarly barred; underparts pale gray or Quaker drab. Female - same as male. Size - 4.75" long. Song - Spontaneous, rollicking outpouring; varied but not as musical as that of the Carolina Wren.

HABITAT: Throughout eastern North America from Wisconsin east to New Brunswick, southward to Virginia and Kentucky.

FOOD: Consists mostly of harmful insects.

NESTING: Built of fine twigs and lined with dried grasses or other soft material, usually located in hole of some old apple tree or crannies of house. Eggs - 5 to 12; pale pinkish buff, brown specked or with wreath at larger end. Incubation - 11 to 13 days. Brood - 1 to 2 yearly.

MIGRATION: Common summer resident from April to October.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is preyed upon by other birds especially the English sparrow, with which he is closely associated. His upright tail gives him a proud appearance. He is a very ambitious and busy little body.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION:  The house wren prefers to be near the habitat of man, and his food consists almost entirely of harmful insects, worms and beetles that infest our gardens and crops. He is regarded as one of the most useful birds to man; and deserves our careful protection.


Flicker. Colaples auratus

DESCRIPTION:  Color - Male - crown gray; nape-scarlet; back-brownish and black; rump-white under parts of wing and tail yellow; sides of throat and breast-black patched; belly-spotted with black. Female - similar, but no black on sides of throat. Size - 12" long. Calls - note, "clape", "yucker", "flicker", "cuh", "cuh", "cuh".

HABITAT: In woods among decayed logs and stumps.

FOOD: Consists of insects (mostly ants).

NESTING: In decayed trees. Eggs - 5 to 9 white. Incubation - 11 to 16 days. Broods - 1 to 2.

MIGRATION: Permanent resident in Ohio. Cannot stand extreme cold.

INTERESTING FACTS: The flicker has many names, commonly known as the yellow hammer. Most common of American woodpeckers.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: A friend of the agriculturist, on account of its destruction of insects.


Meady Lark. Sturnella magna

DESCRIPTION: A medium sized song bird. Color - Male - black, brownish and white mottled on upper part of body; outer tips of tail and wing feathers, white and lemon yellow; breast--yellowish with black crescent; bill, dark above, grayish blue below; iris--brown; legs and feet--pale pinkish-gray. Female - similar. Size - 9" to 11" long. Song - Whistling, sharp musical strain, "spring-o-the-year" or hee-ee-hii-hii-thee-hee". Warning note - "sweet", "urk, turk".

HABITAT: Eastern North America. Breeds from Gulf of Mexico north to James Bay. 


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Open fields and grass lands.

FOOD: Insects; wire worms, cut worms, grasshoppers and grubs, for which he probes around grass roots with his sensitive bill. Also feeds on weed seeds and a little grain.

NESTING: Made of dead grasses on ground in tall vegetation or grass, usually arched. Eggs - 4 to 6; small, white and brown spotted. Incubation - 15 to 17 days. Brood - 1 to 2.

MIGRATION: Can be found during winter months in most sections of United States.

INTERESTING FACTS: A very timid bird. The male feeds his mate when nesting. Flight is slow and leisurely. They do not assemble in large flocks.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The meadow lark saves the farmer hundreds of dollars each year by destroying the insect pests that prey upon his hay and grain crops.


Baltimore Oriole. Ictarus galbula

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - head, neck, shoulders, upper part of back, black; breast, lower part of back, underparts, brilliant orange; wings black with some orange and black; tail orange and black. Female - orange-olive, clearest below and on rump; black spots or streaks on back; wings dark with dingy white bars. Size - 7.50" to 8.00" long. Song and calls - frequent calls and chattering notes: spends much time on reliminaries before beginning the real song; before female arrives the song of male is loud and fragmentary; it has been said that voice is more mellow after arrival of female; during mating season notes are rich, full and delightful. Female sings, whistles and calls.

HABITAT: Seems to choose the haunts of man, shade trees along streets, trees in yards, orchards; sometimes found on edge of wood.

FOOD: Said to be more than 83% animal (including many caterpillars). Eats a small portion of inner part of the caterpillar, leaving other parts; in this way it destroys more than it would kill if it ate the whole.

NESTING: In shade tree, generally hanging from tips of drooping branches. Nest - made of grass, plant fibers, string; lined with very soft materials; purse-like in shape; pensile. Eggs - 3 to 6; white, dull or with greenish tinge; scrawled or streaked with purple or dark brown. Brood - 1 yearly. Incubation - 14 days.

MIGRATION: Late in April or very early in May; return south in September.

INTERESTING FACTS:  Called "oriole" probably because of its resembling rising sun in brilliance; "baltimore" comes from the fact that its colors, orange and black, are those of Lord Baltimore's coat of arms.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Very valuable because of its splendor of color, its thrilling tones, and its consumption of harmful insects.


Brown Thrasher. Toxostoma refum

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - reddish brown above, becoming lighter on sides; throat; breast and under parts--whitish with dark brown specks; white wing bars; tail feathers tipped with white; bill--dark brown; feet brown. Female - similarly marked. Size - 10" to 12" long. Female smaller than male. Song - a very beautiful song. Sings high and low with a large variation of notes in successive phrases. Call is whistling notes of "ti-yoo-oo-wheurr."

HABITAT: Common throughout eastern North America from New Brunswick south to the Gulf States, and west to the Rocky Mountains.

FOOD: Feeds largely on insects such as worms, caterpillar, grasshoppers. Very little grain or fruit is eaten.

NESTING: Nests in low bushes or vines of the fields. Nest is built of sticks, with leaves and bark. Eggs - 3 to 6; white or greenish white with reddish brown dots. Incubation - 13 days. Broods - 1 to 2.

MIGRATION: They seek the warmer southern climates in early fall and winter southern Virginia, and return about last of April.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Brown Thrasher is partial to thickets and gets much of his food from the ground by scratching and scattering leaves. This accounts for his 


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common name. The male often sings on the next during incubation.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: A very beautiful and useful bird, and one of the finest singers of the bird family. It destroys numerous harmful insect pests.


Blue Jay. Cyanocitta cristata cristata

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - upper parts, ultramarine mixed with white, crest a deeper blue; black band crossing breast and continuing upward on sides of neck, joining on back of head; under parts, gray-white, whiter on throat above black band; forehead black; wings and tail barred with black and white. Female - similarly marked. Size - 11" to 12" long. Song or call; mimics other birds; its sweetest note is a pensive, bell-like call.

HABITAT: Deep woods, also in orchards and in ornamental trees; in Autumn frequents nut trees.

FOOD: Vegetable food about 75%; animal food about 25%. In fall and winter, corn and nuts afford a large part of their food; in spring and summer; grasshoppers, caterpillars, strawberries, blackberries, currants, mulberries and other fruits. 

NESTING: Any locality where food can be found; in evergreens or in deciduous trees of woods, also in pear and apple orchards. Nest - sticks, twigs and rootlets, sometimes lined with strips of bark, feathers, leaves or grass; plastered with mud. Eggs - 3 to 6; ground color varying from light ochre to dark olive green; spotter and blotched irregularly with various browns and lavendar or drabs, sometimes with a little black. Incubation period - 15 to 17 days. Broods - generally two in a season.

MIGRATION: Resident in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is vivacious and noisy, a mimic and ventriloquist; destroys grasshoppers, caterpillars, plants, nuts and seeds.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destructive to eggs and young birds.


Barn Owl. Aluco pratincola

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - upper parts tawny, brownish, or yellowish, with grayish tint, spotted with black and pale gray or white; under parts from pure white to tawny, darkening to dark brown near eyes and edged by dark brown borders; head, large without ear-like tufts; wings very long, tail short. Female - similar. Size - 15" to 21" long. Call - a weird scream; a complaining note resembling "quack-quack", or "ack-ack".

HABITAT: In daytime, barn, church steeple or some other secluded place; may be found in nearly any territory frequented by mice and other small mammals.

FOOD: Seeds, insects, birds, mice, small rats and other small mammals.

NESTINGL Hollow trees, holes in banks, underground burrows, barns, deserted buildings, towers, cupolas and steeples. Nest - crudely built of rubbish in barn or chips and rubbish in bottom of tree cavity; sometimes a deserted nest of a crow or some other bird is used. Eggs - 5 to 8; white, with yellowish tinge. Brood - north, 1; south, 2 each year. Incubation - 21 to 24 days.

MIGRATION: Usually resident where found; in winter it may go south of its breeding place, in summer north of it.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is not shy, but is not easy to see in daytime, when it is dozing in some secluded spot. Starts out about dusk for its prey. Especially fitted for night acticity because it can see at night, has very acute hearing, and unusually soft plumage, which helps it to glide silently.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Very beneficial as a mouser and consumer of other harmful rodents.


Screech Owl. Otus asio asio. Red and gray phasa

DESCRIPTION: Head large; eyes large and medium ear tufts. Color - Adult, gray phase above greyish-brown, mottled or barred and streaked with dusky, plainer streaks on top and back of head; lighter gray on under parts; wings, flight feathers and tail 


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barred dusky; face paler gray; brown streak above eye extending to outer edge of ear tufts; feet and bill grayish. Adult, red phase - markings similar, but ground color of upper plumage bright rust red extending on lower plumage-markings similar to gray phase. Size - 6.5" to 10" long. Female larger than male. Song - a long wailing call, more of a whistle or squeaking sound.

HABITAT: Common in eastern North America; from the Dakotas east to the Atlantic coast; north to Ontario and Quebec, and south to Tennessee, North Carolina and Oklahoma.

FOOD: Rats, mice, lizards, birds, poultry, insects, crawfish and earthworms.

NESTING: Hollow trees, buildings, or nesting boxes. Nests are made of straw, leaves and feathers. Eggs - 3 to 5; white, usually smooth, occasionally rough shelled. Incubation - 21 to 25 days. Brood - 1 yearly.

MIGRATION: Non-migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS: The screech owl is a bird of the night and generally conceals itself in some dark place in day time. They change from one color phase to the other, without changing plumage. They are easily tamed and make fine pets.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: A large percent of their food consists of rats, mice, insects, and birds only. It does not feed on vegetables.


Great Horned Owl. Bubo virginianus virginianus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - upper parts dusky, finely mottled with brownish-black, grayish-brown, or ochraceous; wing and tail with faint bars; broad white space on chest; white patch on throat; facial disc rusty, sharply bordered by black; ear tuft black bordered with chore. Female - similar. Size - 18" to 23" long. Calls - a hoot in deep tone; mating song or call - "whoo, whoo hoo-hoo, whoo", varying in length and form. A strange laughter - "hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo".

HABITAT: Larger, deeper woods.

FOOD: Animal matter, including all kinds of poultry, song and game birds, birds of prey, mammals, reptiles, fish, crustaceans and insects.

NESTING: In heavy timber, well-watered forests, especially in deep swamps or near large streams or bodies of water. Nest - rarely built by the bird itself; may be deserted nest of hawk or crow; lined with down from mother's breast and a few feathers. Eggs - 2 to 3; dull white, thick shelled and granular. Brood - one each year. Incubation - 21 to 30 days.

MIGRATION: This owl is a permanent resident where it is found.

INTERESTING FACTS: Can be identified by white throat patch, large ear tufts and powerful build. Because of great strength can seize prey regardless of size; has been said to drive bald eagle from its home; sometimes attacks human beings who approach nest. Nocturnal in habits, most active at dusk and on moonlight nights. Usually keen of sight.


RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Not protected on farm or game preserve, because it eats poultry, birds and all kinds of game.


Red-tailed Hawk. Buteo borealis borealis

DESCRIPTION: Color-Male - upper parts dark brown more or less variegated with whitish or buff; wings buff marked in front; flight feathers dark tipped; dark streaks on breast; legs yellow; bull horn color. Both sexes alike. Size - 19" to 21" long. Females slightly larger than males. Song - long squealing whistle as "kee-aahrr-r-r," of sharp "kerr" or "chirr".

HABITAT: The Red-tailed Hawk inhabits eastern North America from the Gulf States in Northern Canada.

FOOD: Consists mostly of mice, rats, snakes, frogs, rabbits and poultry.

NESTING: High up in trees of the uplands or hilly sections. Nest - made of sticks, grass, leaves and lined with corn husks or moss. Eggs - 2 to 4; white, grayish or bluish white, often brown speckled. Incubation - 28 to 32 days. Brood - one yearly.

MIGRATION: Generally leaves the cold northern climate about October for the warmer


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southern sections and returns north about April 1st. They often remain during the winter in some of the central. states.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Red-tailed Hawk is a high soaring bird and one of the largest of the hawk family. The young mature slowly. The red-tailed hawk is an enemy of the crow. They attack with their strong sharp claws.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It attacks birds, mice, and poultry. It destroys many destructive rodents.


Red-shouldered Hawk. Buteo lineatus lineatus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - neck, breast, shoulders, back of head, rusty-red, back grayish-brown; tail black, crossed with five or six white hands. Female - similar. Size - male, 17.5" to 20" long; female, 19" to 22" long. Call - loud, clear, high-pitched whistle; seems to repeat several times - "kee-you, kee-you, kee-you."

HABITAT: A high tree in moderately timbered district is a good place to look for this hawk.

FOOD: Consists very largely of small rodents, principally mice, batrachians and snaked. It also catches some poultry.

NESTING: In Woodland trees. Nest made of sticks, sometimes built with corn pith. If a crow's nest is used it is filled with additional bark strips, corn husks or dead leaves. Eggs - 2 to 5; pale bluish-white, with rough or chalky surface; generally marked with rufous or yellowish-brown. Brood - generally one in the season. Incubation - 4 weeks.

MIGRATION: Permanent resident in parts of Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the largest hawks. It flies high in graceful circles.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destroys harmful rodents.


Sharp-shinned Hawk. Accipiter velox velox

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - slaty-gray or chocolate-brown, darker on head; tail crossed by several dark bands; under parts whitish, heavily cross-barred with reddish-brown; throat finely streaks; beak, small and weak in appearance; tail long; legs long; feet large and powerful. Female - similar to male but less bluish above and lighter below. Size - 12" long. Call - common note sounds like "cao, cao, cao."

HABITAT: In wood or orchard, about buildings in cities.

FOOD: Mostly birds.

NESTING: In woodland tree; in cliff crannies. Nest - made of sticks, twigs and dry leaves. Eggs - 4 to 5; bluish, greenish or grayish-white spotted or clouded with various shades of brown. Broods - one brood a season. Incubation - 3 to 4 weeks.

MIGRATION: Permanent resident in parts of Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: A rapacious bird. Flight is swift as an arrow. Little good can be said for it.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: This hawk is thought to do much more harm than good.


Cooper's Hawk. Accipiter cooperii

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - above, rather dark bluish-gray; top of head, black or blackish; sides of head, rufous often washed with bluish-gray; under parts barred and cross-spotted with rufous on the white. Female - fuller than male; top of head more brownish; back and upper plumage less bluish. Size - male, 14" to 17" long; female 18" to 20" long. Call - "cuck, cuck, cuck"; loud scream given by female when frightened from nest; a note resembling "trick, tick" repeated often.

HABITAT: Woodlands, seldom seen outside woods, except when soaring or when making raids on poultry yards.

FOOD: Mainly animal matter, chiefly game birds and poultry; other birds, including robin, mourning dove, crow, meadow lark; oriole, bluebird, several species of sparrows, small animals; reptiles, frogs, a few insects.

NESTING: Preferably in white pine tree, in some places. In Ohio, beech tree generally used. Nest - made of sticks, often lined with bark, moss, grass or leaves;


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sometimes a superstructure raised on an old nest. Eggs - 2 to 6; bluish white, often faintly spotted with yellowish-brown or lilac. Brood - one each year. Incubation - 21 to 24 days.

MIGRATION: Common resident in southern part of Ohio. Individuals migrating reach lake shore about middle of April and remain until late in October.

INTERESTING FACTS: Secretive in habits; skillful in flight; often captures its prey while on the wing.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Has little economic value to man. Because of food habits it is a trouble to farmer, poultrymen, and game keeper. 


American Woodcock. Philohela minor

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male and Female much alike. Mottled with brown, gray and some black; feather tips and edges ash gray; bill flesh color, dusky on ridge; feet, flesh color; eye, ring white; iris, dark brown; body, rather round and plump; tail short; neck short; legs short and stocky; bill long and flexible; eyes large and set far back on the head. Size - 10" to 12" long; females are slightly larger than male. Song - harsh nasal "pleenk" or "blaik". When in the air, chippering or piping song. 

HABITAT: Damp woodlands, bordering streams or lowland meadows overgrown with vegetation.

FOODS: Insects, earthworms, grubs, beetles and grasshoppers.

NESTING: On slight elevations in the woods, or lands with heavy vegetation. Nest - made of laves or grass carelessly drawn together on the ground. Eggs - 2 to 3; light cream with brown spots. Incubation - 21 days. The broods leave the nest immediately after hatching, protected and hid in the heavy vegetation, by the mother for about one month. Broods - 2 each season.

MIGRATION: Common summer resident of Ohio. Arrives in March and leaves for the warmer climates of the south in November.

INTERESTING FACTS: Flying and feeding take place at night. Tip of bird's bill is enlarged and very sensitive to enable him to find his food at night. Is quietly hidden during the daytime in the grass and leaves. When disturbed it rises almost vertical and very swiftly making a whistling, whirring sound. It descends in a zig-zag manner.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The woodcock is a valuable and well liked game bird. It is very desirable as a food and a choice of the real sportsman. The large number of harmful insects it consumes makes it a friend to the farmer. Being a favorite of the hunter it is becoming more scarce each year. The open season is October 15th to November 14th; both days inclusive. Bag limit 4.


Wilson's Snipe. Gallinago delicata

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - upper parts brownish-black, mottled, barred and streaks ith pole yellowish buff and white; crown and back almost a pure black; irregular buff line divides crown; throat whitish; sides of head, neck and breast buff, finely spotted or streaked, with black bars. Female - similar. Size - 10" to 12" long. Calls - a harsh "scaipe, scaipe" uttered when bird is startled and rising; a hoarse "cr-r-r-ack" or "craik", distress call; "kuk, kuk, kuk, kuk, kuk," mating call.

HABITAT: Swampy place, occasionally a meadow.

FOOD: Earthworms, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, beetles, weed seeds and other vegetable matter.

NESTING: In open marshy places. Nest - a depression in grass or moss, lined perhaps with grass; occasionally more of a nest, raised a little above surface around it. Eggs - 3 to 4; olive, clay or brownish-ash with chocolate colored marks, especially at larger end. Brood - one a year. Incubation - about 20 days.

MIGRATION: Winter resident in southern part of state; rare in northern Ohio even is summer. Migrates late in March or early in April, and October or November.

INTERESTING FACTS: On a clear day, light blinds the snipe; on cloudy, windy days it springs up, gives a call, and follows a zig-zag trail, then goes to some other feeding spot. Partly nocturnal; probes into earth with long slender bill and gets insects and larvae.


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RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Beneficial to farmers by destroying harmful insects and their larvae.


Ruffed Grouse. Bonasa umbellus

DESCRIPTION: Crested and ruffed. Color - Male - Upper parts spotted, mainly cinnamon brown (those of some birds gray); under parts yellowish, with greenish or steel-blue iridescence. Female - similar to male but duller. Size - 15.5" to 19" long. Female smaller than male. Song or call - drumming sound made by rapid beating of the wings.

HABITAT: In summer, wooded hills; in winter, valleys and swamps under protection of thickets and coniferous trees; in winter, valleys and swamps under protection of thickets and coniferous trees; in autumn, sometimes near oak, chestnut, wild apple trees, or near grape vines.

FOOD: In spring and summer, largely insects, including grasshoppers, crickets, ants, beetles, cutworms; vegetable food, foliage, blossoms, tender grass and other growing plants. In fall, nuts and seeds.

NESTING: Near border of large wood, sometimes in briar thicket in partly decayed leaves. Nest - cavity in leaves or loam, lined with soft leaves and grasses. Eggs - 6 to 9; cream colored, of different shades. Incubation - 24 days. Brood - 1 yearly. 

MOGRATION: The bird is not migratory, but resident.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the scratching birds. Young can run soon after hatching. Often called "partridge" in North and "pheasant" in South, though it is a true grouse. Sometimes plunges through crust of deep snow, and roosts in snow.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Useful in destroying harmful insects.


Hungarian Partridge. Perdix perdix

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - head brownish-gray; body mottled with buff, brown and gray; chestnut horse shoe on breast; neck grayish-brown to slate, with irregular bars of black; wing coverts brownish gray with inner web blotched with chestnut; stripe of buff down each shaft; feet and legs yellowish, changing to slatish blue in November and continuing until spring. Female - similar to male except head and neck is more grayish and the dark bars more distinct. Size - 12" to 14" long. Female slightly smaller than male. Song - female has clucking call; male has loud hoarse "caer-wit, caer-wit".

HABITAT: Prefers the agricultural sections, where land is rolling and vegetation is plentiful.

FOOD: Consists of insects, worms and weed seeds.

NESTING: Made on ground, slightly dug out. Eggs - 10 to 20; drab colored. They are covered with grass and leaves until laying is finished, and nest is then rearranged for incubation; the grass and leaves being placed under the eggs. Incubation - 21 days. Brood - 1 yearly. Male assists in rearing brood.

MIGRATION: Is non-migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS - The Hungarian Patridge was introduced into America from Europe where it originated. It is considered one of our best game birds and a great favorite of the sportsman. As a food it ranks very high. The young are about fully matured at 3 months.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION:  The Hungarian Partridge is a real friend of the farmer. Rarely disturbs grain, and lives almost entirely on insects, worms, and other harmful insect pests and weed seed.


Quail. Calinus virginianus virginianus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - a mixture of dead leaf tints; mottled brown, russet, gray and white, tail ash gray; sides of head over and under eye and throat, black and white streaked; neck brown and fades into the mottled colors; bill dark slatish, feet dark bluish gray. Female - same mottled color as male except she does not have the conspicuous white and black markings around eye and throat; these are brown. Size - 9.5" to 10.75" long. Female slightly larger than the male. Song - has a 


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shrill whistling call as "bob-white" and "bob-bob-white." Their low chatter sounds like "buck-wheat, buck-wheat."

HABITAT: Common in most sections of United States especially the central agricultural sections; prefer the open fields of grain or grass lands. A ground bird, seldom takes refuge in trees.

FOOD: Weed seeds, insects, worms, some wild fruit, tree seeds and some small grain.  

NESTING: Made of grass or leaves on ground in open fields, fence rows or along road sides where vegetation is heavy. Nests are generally concealed by arching with grass or vegetation. Eggs - 10 to 20; pure white. Incubation - 23 to 24 days. Brood - 1 each year.

MIGRATION: Is non-migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Quail or Bob White is a very valuable and one of the most favored of game birds. However, they have been placed on the song bird list for the past 20 years. It is doubtful if this protection has sided or increased its population, as under its present "song bird" status, it is prohibiting the protection and propagation of the State Conservation Department. Although once very prolific, its increase has not been very noticeable up to the present owing to its wild life enemies and lack of protection.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The Quail or Bob White is a reel friend of the farmer. They destroy a large number of harmful insects. Including the destructive "Hessian Fly" (the wheat pest). Grain is a very small percent of their diet; mostly taken during the winter months. It is said each Quail is worth $5.00 a year to the farmer as a destroyer of harmful weed seeds and insects.


Chukar. Caccabis chukar

DESCRIPTION: Color - pale grayish-brown or dust color, with bluish tinge when sun shines on back; black border beginning above eyes, running along sides of heed, arching down neck and across throat; legs shining red; beak bright red; flanks yellowish white, with black bars displayed when bird flies. Size - 19" to 21" long. Male larger than female. Call - "chuck-chukor", loud and ringing; uttered in different tones.

HABITAT: High, barren hillside without trees. Lives and feeds on ground, finding shelter beneath rock or under bush.

FOOD: Variety of grains; seeds, roots, green shoots, leaves, insects, larvae.

NESTING: On ground, under shelter of stone or tuft of herbage. Nest - male usually digs the nest in the ground; it is lined with grass, dry leaves and other rubbish. Eggs - 10 to 14; pale yellowish or grayish, sparsely speckled, of hard texture, fairly glossy. Incubation - 23 or 24 days. Breeding season - March to August.

INTERESTING FACTS: A native of India. It has a very wide range, but is resident where found. Can live at great heights or in valleys, where other birds would starve. In India it becomes a pet and is kept in a cage. It has very strong and swift flight.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: An excellent sporting bird. Adaptable to any type of country on which it has been liberated. A hardy, prolific breeder. With proper protection the chukar can take care of itself.


Reeves Pheasant. Syrmaticus Reevesi

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - crown white with black band from forehead to occiput; chin, throat white; neck white with black collar; upper parts of body, cinnamon; wings white and black; lower part of body white margined with chestnut and buff; extreme lower parts black; tail very long and narrow, with white center and sides buff tipped with black. Female - crown reddish brown; rest of head buff; beck dark; rest of upper parts grayish buff; wing coverts buff; lower back, black striped; central tail feathers mottled with buff and black tipped with white. Size - 5' 4" from bill to end of tail. Some are more than 6' long. Song - a simple song with high "piping" key repeating from 6 to 20 times; musical and sweet. Alarm note, high cry by both male and female.

HABITAT: Sparsely wooded sections, hilly or broken mountainous country.


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FOOD: Beans, corn, wild persimmons, turnips, cabbage and hilly bulbs.

NESTING: Hollow depression on ground, without lining, not even deed leaves. Eggs - 8 to 25; olive brown or olive green color. Incubation - 24 to 25 days. Under favorable conditions possibly two broods are hatched yearly.

MIGRATION: Is non-migratory.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Reeves pheasant, with its extreme long tail, is one of the most beautiful of the pheasant family. Is a native of China and was introduced in Ohio about 25 years ago. It is being hatched and reared at the State Game Farm at Urbane, Ohio and has been distributed in Guernsey, Muskingum and Belmont Counties.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The flesh of the Reeves pheasant is superior to that of the more common pheasant. It is more wild than the average pheasant and very swift on the wing.


Ring-necked Pheasant. Phasianus torquatus

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - upper parts black, white, copper, yellow, pale blue, shades of green combined; sides of head largely bare, with livid skin; top of head a light green; throat and neck black with beautiful metallic reflections; collar of white; fore-neck and upper part of breast coppery red with golden and purple reflections; belly nearly black. Female - much plainer; no white collar; mostly brownish. Size - 30", more than half of length being tail. Calls - similar to those of domestic fowls. "Content song," given with bill closed, when birds are preparing for night's roost. Male's challenge like crow, "kok-eack!" Whirling of wings generally with this crowing. Hen's alarm note similar to that of bantam. 

HABITAT: In dense reed beds, on lowhills having scrub oak, chestnut, pine or thick undergrowth of grass.

FOOD: Grains, roots, seeds.

NESTING: On ground, generally in tussock or under brush. Nest - dried leaves, grasses and weeds. Eggs - 8 to 15; yellowish, or bluish buff. Broods - generally one brood. Incubation - 23 to 25 days.

MIGRATION: Introduced into Ohio. Now a permanent resident.

INTERESTING FACTS: Imported to this country from China. Has very keen sight; is a good runner; can disappear completely and almost mysteriously.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for men. Destroys insects and weed seeds. Needs to be provided with food and shelter.


Wood Duck. Aix sponsa

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - back black, overshot with purple; breast chestnut with purple glints and white dots; wings a brilliant black with touches of purple and white; underbody white; sides buff with white lines; crest green and purple. Female - greenish gray, with markings less pronounced; back has some purplish reflections similar to those on drake. Size - male, 19" to 20.5"; female 17" to 19.25". Call - low, guttural sound.

HABITAT: Wooded swamps.

FOOD: Nuts, seeds, wild berries and water plants. (Acorns, a favorite food.)

NESTING: In hollow tree, generally in woods. Nest lined with twigs, grasses and down. Eggs - 10 to 15; creamy white. Brood - one a year. Incubation - 28 to 30 days.

MIGRATION: Late in March, returns south in October.

INTERESTING FACTS: Of unusual beauty; an expert in flying; sure-footed and seems to enjoy walking or running along dangerous projections. A few years ago this duck was in danger of becoming extinct, but it is coming back substantially and now breeds in Ohio rather extensively.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The value is aesthetic. It is on the protected list and sportsmen are interested in protecting it.


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Mallard. Anasplatyrhynechos

DESCRIPTION:  Color - Male - head and upper part of neck glossy green shading to prussian blue, joining this green in narrow white ring around neck, lower part of neck and breast, rich purplish chestnut; back and upper parts of body grayish brown more brownish in center of back and on shoulders; wing patch bright purplish and wings grayish, under part of body silver gray; tail white with center feathers dark and curled; bill olive; feet orange red; iris brown. Male changes in summer to the darker plainer color of female. Female - entire body variegated with brown and yellowish brown, lighter below than on back; head and neck buffy, streaked with brown; feet dull yellow; bill dark spotted with orange. Size - 19.25" to 28" long. Female smaller than male. Song - female has loud harsh "quack" like the domestic duck. The male's voice is soft "kewk-kwek, kwek-kwek."

HABITAT: Common in North America, Europe, Asia and Northern Africa. Is found most anywhere in or around fresh water lakes, streams and pools (often in open fields).

FOOD: Consists of water plants, insects, seeds and all kinds of grain that grow within its range.

NESTING: On ground near water, sometimes away from water in fields. It is made of grass, weeds, leaves, and lined with down from female's breast. Eggs - 5 to 14; yellowish white or greenish white. Incubation - 23 to 29 days. Brood - one yearly.

MIGRATION: Migrates in large flocks from northern sections to south in late fall, returning northward in March. Is occasionally seen during winter in Ohio and other central states.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Mallard can be bred for domestication. It is the wild duck per excellence and a favorite of the sportsman. It is perhaps the most abundant of all wild ducks.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The Mallard is well adapted to small ponds, fields, and swamp areas, and will frequent inland lakes and smaller bodies of water. It is highly valued as game food and can be raised with profit under special permits, for the market. It is easily domesticated.


Green-winged Teal. Nettio carolinensis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - head and upper neck mainly chestnut; chin black; broad bands of metallic green from eyes toward back of head, where the bands meet in a tuft; bands have narrow border of buff; back gray with fine black bars; breast reddish-cream dotted with black; under parts buff; patch of black and green on wing. Female - brownish, more dusky than drake. Size - 12.5" to 15.75" long. Calls - male, a short, mellow whistle; a low rolling whistle. Female, a high-pitched, repeated "quack."

HABITAT: Shallow water, shore of inland pond or lake, wayside ditch, isolated swamp pool.

FOOD: About 90% is vegetable matter; as seeds, juicy parts of water plants, grains (mostly wild) some nuts and fruits; animal food including land and water insects.

NESTING: Generally on dry ground in or close to marsh, near water or on higher ground some distance from water. Nest - generally in hollow in heavy growth of some vegetation, or under bushes; made of grass, sedges, weeds, feathers and down. Eggs - 7 to 12; pale olive-greenish buff or dull buff. Brood - one yearly. Incubation - 21 to 23 days.

MIGRATION: Arrives in March and starts south in late fall. Does not stay in Ohio for long.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of our most handsome fresh-water ducks; one of swiftest flyers of the game birds, able to fly with the wind at rate of one hundred miles an hour; often flies in flocks; good swimmer and driver (seldom dives except to escape enemy) good walker and runner.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Ranks high as food.


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Blue-winged Teal. Querquedula discors

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - back dark brown and dull black, with buff-shaded bars and streaks; breast and lower parts brown or chestnut, with black specks or spots; scapulars black and buff; speculum bright with a bar of white separating it from sky-blue patch on bend of wing; head blackish on top, dusky leaden gray elsewhere. Female - bright green speculum may be missing, but blue patch on wing is there; breast pinkish with dusty spots; under body gray; head and neck dusty brown. Size - 14.5" to 16" long. Calls - male, a whistling "peep" given five or six times; call note a high-pitched "tseef, tseef." Female, a quack.

HABITAT: A sluggish stream, lagoon, channel full of vegetation, small pond, marsh-bordered pool; occasionally a lake or a large river.

FOOD: About 70% vegetable matter; including sedges, pondweeds, grasses, water lilies reeds, rice and grains. Animal matter includes insects; mainly larval stage and crustaceans.

NESTING: Marsh or field not far from water, open prairie, occasionally a small island. Nest - a hollow lined with grass and down; generally hidden by grass; eggs covered with down when the female leaves nest. Eggs - 10 to 12; pale olive-buff or buffy-white. Brood - one a year. Incubation - 21 to 23 days.

MIGRATION: Late April and October.

INTERESTING FACTS: In Ohio it is common locally during migrations. Flight is very swift. In spring seen singly or in groups of 2 or 3; in fall in large numbers. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable as game bird. Excellent food because of feeding habits.


Redhead. Marila americana

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - head and upper part of neck reddish chestnut; lower part of neck blackish; front part of wings lead gray; flight feathers lighter gray; sides and flanks white behind; fore part of abdomen whitish; bill slate with black tip; iris lemon yellow; legs and feet bluish-gray, webs dark. Female - more of a brownish cast and lighter. Size - 17" to 23" long. Female smaller than male. Song - a hoarse rolling sound "me-ow" like the voice of a large cat, or a peculiar "que-quaa." Female sounds like a growl "r-r-r-r-wha"; also a loud clear "squak" higher than that of the Mallard or Black Duck.

HABITAT: Common in central and northern North America. Frequents lakes, ponds and small streams. It prefers fresh water, but is found in the salt water of the Atlantic Crest.

FOOD: Mostly vegetable matter, pond seeds, wild celery. They also eat fresh water clams, snails, leeches, tadpoles and small fish.

NESTING: Nests are usually found in marsh lands bordering lakes. Nests are deep, carefully made of grass, or weeds and lined with down, with weeds or grass bent over it. Eggs - 10 to 15; pale olive buff to cream buff. Date of nesting is May 18 to June 28 in northern section of United States and southern Canada. Incubation - 22 to 24 days. One brood yearly.

MIGRATION: The Redhead Duck migrates northward about middle of March to middle of April. Returns southward in October or November.

INTERESTING FACTS: In flight, they have no definite flock formation. Are very timid and survey surroundings carefully before slighting. They are easily decoyed. They feed mostly at night and rest during the day.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The Redhead Duck is very valuable as a food, and is one of the favorite wild fowl of the hunter. It generally keeps away from shore lines, but is easily decoyed by the hunter. The "wild duck" as we generally call it, is well protected. Sale as food is prohibited.


Shoveler. Spatula clypeata

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - head and neck black, with glossy green and metallic blue or purple feathers on upper part; lower part of neck and also fore breast white lower part of breast, belly and sides purplish chestnut; back greenish dusky, chang-


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ing greenish-black on rump. Female - upper parts plain dusky, glossed toward the tail with greenish hue; head and neck narrowly streaked with dusk; lower part of breast tinged with brown. Size - 17" to 21" long. Call - in breeding season male gives a low, throaty "wok, wok." or "took, took, took"; female has a few weak "quacks".

HABITAT: Muddy pond or river; explores small ditches and pools.

FOOD: Almost two thirds animal matter; including fresh water snails, water insects, small fishes, crayfish, grasshoppers and locusts. Vegetable food; includes pondweeds, sedges, grasses, waterlilies, duckweeds, smartweeds.

NESTING: Marsh meadow, prairie or island in lake. Nest - a hollow in either dry or damp ground, generally concealed in grass or under shrubbery, lined with grass, edged with down. Eggs - 6 to 14; yellowish drab, pale olive, green or greenish-white. Brood - one a year. Incubation - 21 to 23 days.

MIGRATION: Dates not regular; the shoveler is seen as early as March and as late as December.

INTERESTING FACTS: Generally migrates in a flock of shovelers or with bluebills. It has a broad flattened bill; sense of touch and taste very highly developed; tongue has specialized taste palillae, which help to distinguish between meat and poison.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable to men because it destroys injurious insects; helps fish and men by destroying enemies of fish; when it has been eating vegetable food, it is excellent food.


American Coot. Fulica americana

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male and female alike. In general a blackish slate, with blue tint above, brown below; head and neck black; some wing and tail feathers white. Size - 13" to 16" long. Calls - one call note, "pulque, pulque, pulque"; "coo-coo, coo-coo" is called day and night; "squack" resembles quack of a duck.

HABITAT: Creeks and rivers having shores that are marshy and reed-grown; lakes and quiet rivers accessible to vegetable and animal matter carred down by sluggish streams.

FOOD: Similar to food of domestic fowls; largely vegetable matter, including grass, pondweeds, roots, bulbs, buds, blossoms and seeds of water plants. In breeding season many insects and snails are eaten.

NESTING: Near swamps, pools and sluggish streams. Nest - a pile of reeds or flags and other water plants; often woven to living vegetation over water from six to thirty inches deep, rising and falling with water; sometimes on ground. Eggs - 6 to 15; clay-colored to creamy white, with very small dark brown or blackish dots. Incubation - about seven days.

MIGRATION: Enters state latter part of March, reaches lake shore early in April; leaves during latter part of October.

INTERESTING FACTS: Dives deep for food; uses both wings and feet when swimming; wades and swims in hunting food. Bobs its head when swimming.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Both the fowl and its eggs are used for food; the eggs are not as good as those of the domestic hen.


Lesser Scaup Duck. Aythya affinis

DESCRIPTION: Color - Male - purplish gloss on head, that looks greenish, perhaps, when seen from the front; foreneck and breast purplish-black; sides and flanks with blackish waves; occasional individual has dull brownish ring around neck. Female - head dusky or dark brown, this color taking place of black and gray in male; plumage in general more obscure than that of male. Size – 15” to 18” long. Calls – a harsh loud, disagreeable “scaup”; a soft, purring whistle expressing excitement, or used in calling to mate.

HABITAT: River, pond, reservoir, lake; in breeding season often paddles about in muddy places where there is some grass, and is frequently seen on small island where nest may be hidden.

FOOD: Water insects, small fish, tadpoles, crustaceans, mollusks; also pondweeds and many other water plants.

NESTING: Generally about shallow lakes, ponds, or in swamps. Nest in a depression hidden in grass or reeds; made of dry grass stems, lined with very dark down. Eggs – 9 to 12; shells smooth, somewhat glossy. Brood – one a year. Incubation – 3 to 4 weeks. It is not known that they breed in Ohio.

MIGRATION: Reaches Ohio in March or April; moves farther north for summer; starts back south in October or November.

INTERESTING FACTS: Probably the best known duck in Ohio; perhaps less numerous than the pintail, but more easily seen. Flight is swift and frequently erratic. During migration season they are in flocks from five to more than one hundred.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Used for food.


American Merganser. Mergus americanus

DESCRIPTION: Color – Male head and upper part of neck, dark lustrous green; upper part of body glossy black shading to ash gray on rump and tail; edge of shoulder and most of wing, white; upper part of wing dark; under parts of body white; bill and feet vermilion; iris, red. Female – head and upper neck reddish brown; upper parts ashy gray, becoming lighter on under parts; iris, bill and feet, red but duller than male. Size – 21” to 27” long. Female smaller than male. Song – Female has course “quack”; male “karr-karr” or hoarse croaks.

HABITAT: Common about the woodland lakes and rivers in most sections of North America from northern Canada to Mexico.

FOOD: Fish, frogs, water insects; also grain (especially corn).

NESTING: Usually made in hollow tree, hold in cliff or under rocks and sometimes on ground around bushes. Grass, twigs, leaves, straw are used in building nest, which is lined with down. Eggs – 6 to 17; pale creamy buff. Incubation – 28 days. Brood – one yearly.

MIGRATION: In October generally migrates from the extreme cold of north to the warmer sections and returns north in May. Occasionally a winter resident in some of the mild central states.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Merganser is vigorous and hardy. They are very swift flyers, good swimmers, and divers. Fish seems to be their main food.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The American Merganser is valueless as a food because it eats fish, but it is one of our most beautiful and graceful birds.


Cancas Back Duck. Marila valisineria

DESCRIPTION: Color – Male – head and upper neck, dark reddish brown; neck and upper parts of body whitish intermingling with black bars; lower parts of body white; base of neck encircled by wide black collar which extends on fore part of body in front of wings; wing coverts gray with small dark spots; flight feathers slatish brown; tail dark slate; tail coverts and rump darkish; bill greenish black; iris carmine; legs and feet grayish blue, webs dark. Female – duller with head and neck more of a graying brown. Size – 20” to 24” long. Female smaller than male. Song – a rather growling “groak” or “quack”, a low “cooo, ick, ick.” Female has “quack” or screaming “currow.” 

HABITAT: Common in North America, especially in northwestern section; on or near lake and ponds. Seldom found in streams.

FOOD: The canvas back is especially fond of wild celery, and other water plants. Some grains are taken. It also feeds on snails, tadpoles and insects.

NESTING: Found in heavy vegetarian, in swamps near the water or sometimes surrounded by water. They are constructed of weeds and grass lined with down. Eggs – 7 to 15; greenish-drab or olive color. Incubation – 28 days. Brood – one yearly.

MIGRATION: Migrates from breeding grounds of the northwest in late fall about October and returns northward last of April.

INTERESTING FACTS: The canvas back, as this duck is called on account of the white canvas-like color of its back, is a very swift, high flying duck. They flock in 


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large numbers and are regarded as the highest and most desirable of the duck family.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The canvas back duck is noted for its superior quality as a food. Since spring hunting is prohibited, it seems to be increasing in numbers. It is one of the favorite wild fowl of the sportsman, and is called the king of waterfowl.


Ruddy Duck. Grismatura jamaicensis

DESCRIPTION: Color – Male – top of head and sides glossy black; chin throat and patch extending from bill back under eye, white; sides of breast and entire upper part of body reddish chestnut, except wings and rump which are down, secondaries of wing tipped with white; tail dark with under coverts white; bill and eyelids slate-blue; iris reddish brown; feet bluish gray, webs dark. Female – more grayish and lighter; top of head reddish brown. Both sexes become duller in color during winter. Size – 13.5” to 17” long. Female smaller than the male. Song – a weak squeak and quack—courting note of male “chica, chica, chica, chica, quak.” The female utters a feeble “quack.”

HABITAT: Rather scattered in northern sections, but it inhabits most of North America south to Cuba and Porto Rico.

FOOD: Is largely vegetable, including wild celery and pondweeds. They also take many insects, larvae, mussels, snails, fish spawn, worms and small crabs.

NESTING: Usually found in low marsh lands near fresh water rivers and lakes; sometimes they are made in weeds floating on water. Nest – built of dry stems of water plants, lined with down; a canopy is often made by bonding weeds and water plants over the nest. Eggs – 5 to 15; grayish white to buffy white. Incubation – about 30 days. Brood – one yearly.

MIGRATION: The northward journey starts about first of May, and they return early in October. Mostly seen in small flocks.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Ruddy Duck is a fast swimmer and a good diver. Can also swim very fast under water. Is not so timid as other ducks. It is found in small flocks (rarely more than half dozen).

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The Ruddy Duck is less desirable than some other species. Its flesh is less palatable, and by its lack of shyness, and low flight, it is not a favorite of the sportsman.



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CONSERVATION

Conservation as an economic and a political philosophy is in America to stay. Expressed in condensed form, it means the intelligent use and management of our natural resources for the permanent good of all the people for present and for future generations.

Conservation of our natural resources does not imply saving as such in the sense of hoarding or keeping from use. It contemplated intelligent use. This applies to all the things that nature supplies us, although perhaps not with equal force. Keeping from use is sometimes as bad as a policy of wastefulness.

Let us consider our forests. If we can save the growing trees from destruction by fire, insects and disease, they in time will mature. A tree, after it has reached its normal natural ago, will die. Unless it is cut down and made to serve a utilitarian purpose – firewood for heating homes, lumber, furniture, railroad ties, pulpwood, insulation, telephone poles or any other of the many uses wood can be put, it will have lost its opportunity to serve a constructive, economic purpose. It will have been truly wasted. Similarly, as a source of recreation we get only as much from our tree shaded woodlands as we take out of them by hiking, camping, touring, hunting, and vacationing.

Let us take our waters. Here is a striking example of how intensive use measures the degree to which a resource can be made to serve our needs. This is a resource which may be said to be inexhaustible and, for practical purposes, constant. Nothing, that we can do, can be made to increase the ultimate supply. Only as we use it in various forms in which it is made available to us, is it of value. It is largely within our choice whether, during periods of abundance and freshets, water shall become our master as an agent of destruction and pass off to the ocean as waste, or whether it shall be impounded in reservoirs to be made to enhance low flow for greater and more dependable supplies for domestic and municipal use and power, and to maintain lakes and streams.

Fish are of value, only as they are made a source of recreation and food supply. Their conservation consists in maintaining a balance between reproduction and the rate of exhaustion from demands of fishing, disease, and depleted food supplies.

Many of our fur bearing animals are rodents and predators which prey on and destroy other desirable species of wild and domestic life. Trapping a portion of them and thus reducing their population not only serves the purpose of supplying us with fures but contributes towards maintaining a balance favorable to the reproduction and supply of a greater number of other forms of wild life which are of greater value to us. 

Conservation implies also a recognition of the limitations which surround and affect the various species of wild life, plants and mineral resources as they relate to their cycles of life, powers of reproduction and possibilities of restoration and replacement. Conservation, then, means the restoration of replaceable resources and the replenishment of those which are becoming extinct.



FISH

Ohio stresses varied stream stocking. In other words, we plant not only the popularly termed game fishes: - brook, brown and rainbow trout, smallmouth, largemouth and spotted basses; the pan fishes: - bluegill, sunfish, yellow perch, and bullhead catfish, but minnows, to serve as additional forage for game fishes in areas that have been depleted during the season. This varied stocking program serves a two-fold purpose. First, it aids in striking a proper balance in our fishing waters; and second, it affords our various types of fishermen more opportunity to indulge in the particular phase of angling they enjoy.

In 1935, we produced in our twelve hatcheries located at St. Marys, Newton, London, Russels Point, Bucyrus, Millersport, Piqua, Xenia, Defiance, Portage Lakes, Chagrin Falls, and Kincaid Springs, approximately 3,300,000 fish. The total number mature adult fish secured from municipal reservoirs and from Lake Erie was approximately 400,000. The fish, which were released in Ohio streams, were tagged in order 


25
to check their migrations and the environmental conditions in the streams in which they chose to live.

In order that Ohio might have good fishing, surveys were made in various streams and lakes to discover conditions necessary for fish to survive. It was found, we needed a stream improvement plan. With this thought in mind, we are building dams and in proving the environmental conditions as a means of increasing the fish population. We now find good fishing in all six state-owned lakes: St. Marys, Indian, White, Alma, Loramie and Portage; likewise, most of the streams, as: Scioto, Big and Little Darby, Deer Creek, Muskingum, Tuscarawas, Mohican, Big and Little Still Water, Big and Little Walnut, etc. Good fishing means more licenses sold and hence more money for stream improving.

In 1934, 106,522 resident and 670 non-resident licenses were sold, while in 1935, 118,219 resident and 828 non-resident were sold, showing a very good increase.


Illustration



SKETCH ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF FISH TAGS

A is the Atkins tag, the first type used in fish marking. B is the disk or button tag, the most widely used at the present time. C is the metal strap tag, used largely on Alaska salmon and codfish. D is the internal tag, E is the tag used in Ohio.

MARKING FISH

The only positive way to trace the movements of individual fish is through tagging, marking or placing upon the fish some mark of identification which will remain legible over an extensive period of time, which will be easy of recognition to those who chance to catch the fish, and which will be capable of bearing essential information such as a serial tracing number and the address to which the tag or fish is to be returned. The primary purpose of this marking of fish has been to determine possible movements or migrations. The important secondary considerations involve the gathering of information on the rate of growth of the fish, and on the intensity of fishing effort expended by anglers and commercial fishermen in the capture of carious food and game fishes.

Marking fish is an old practice. Isaac Walton in “The Compleat Angler,” written in 1653, mentions having heard that before his time fish were marked by tying ribbons around their tails.

The credit for the first systematic fish marking attempted either in America or Europe apparently belongs to Charles G. Atkins of the United States Fish Commission who, at the instigation of Professor Baird, the founder and first Commissioner of the present United States Bureau of Fisheries, began experiments marking Atlantic salmon in 1872 at Bucksport, Maine.

The metal strap tag, was devised by the late Dr. C.H. Gilbert of Stanford University. This tag is essentially a metal clip fashioned after a type intended originally for tagging or earmarking cattle and sheep. Each tag consists of a flat strip of aluminum or monel metal on one side of which is a serial number and name of the


26
Tagging agency. Close to one end a hole is cut, and the other and is flattened and sharpened into a sort of prong. A pair of tongs attaches this tag to the upper or lower lobe of the caudal fin or the gill of the fish by reason of the prong automatically folding over, after penetrating the hole at the other end of the tag.


SOME INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

History of fishing in Ohio.

Extent of good fishing in Ohio today.

Good fishing sportsmanship.

State stocking of fishing waters.

Improving fish habitats – Production of fish in farm ponds.

Stream pollution.

Kinds of fish.

Fish shelter – logs – brush – etc.

Maintaining constant water supply.

Rescue fish that are stranded during floods.

To appreciate the necessity for fish protection and propagation and the methods employed.

To appreciate the economic importance of fish.

Briefly outline work of the National and State Governments in protecting and propagating food fishes.

Report on the common fish found in your sections.

Lecture – how to fish – baits – hooks care of fish – fish lanes, etc.

When and where to fish – small ponds and streams in Ohio.

To study structural adaptation of fish for locomotion, food getting and respiration.

To become familiar with the life histories of common fish.

Study a living specimen. Have pupils note the following: shape of body, fins, and scales; mouth, gill rakers; gills, respiratory movements.

See how the fish reacts to stimuli (sense organs, lateral line).

What is meant by the lateral line in fish? What is its use?

Explain blood circulation in fish.

Observe the various movements and functions of the fins.

What fins in a fish serve as a brake?

What are the functions of the horns (barbels) of the catfish?

Why are fish darker on the dorsal side than on the ventral side?

Give adaptations for protection in the fish.

Do fish find their food by smell or by sight?

Learn the life histories of at least two of the following: perch, black bass, codfish, salmon, shad, eel.

What are some enemies of the fish?

Fish Pictures.

Illustrates on a state man of Ohio the names and locations of our fish hatcheries.
1.	Number of men employed to raise the fish.
2.	Kind and number of fish raised this last year.
3.	Number of rearing ponds for each hatching.
4.	Applications for fish.
5.	How, when, where the fish were distributed.

Illustrate with pictures the different kinds of fish it is possible to catch in our state waters.
1.	Open and closed seasons.
2.	Legal sizes and bag limits.
3.	Emphasize some distinguishing characteristics about each kind of fish, that we might know what we catch.

Fish Diseases.

Methods of Fishing.

Prepare an exhibit of commercial articles made from fish.


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(Illustrations)

Black Bullhead
Brown Bullhead
Smallmouth Bass
Brown Bullhead
Smallmouth Bass
Yellow Perch
Longear Sunfish
Pumpkinseed Sunfish
Channel Catfish
Yellow Bullhead
Largemouth Bass
White Bass
Green Sunfish
Blue gill Sunfish


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FISH

Smallmouth Black Bass. Micropterus dolomieu. Lacepede

DESCRIPTION: Body – Slender and graceful. Moderately compressed, becoming deeper with age. Long, low, spiny dorsal fin separated from soft dorsal fin by deep notch. Dorsal fin – 10 spiny rays, 13-15 soft rays. Fins – nearly plain, olive or grayish. Scales – 10-12; 66-78; 19-22/ Mouth – moderate size, never extends beyond eye. Color when markings are present, they form vertical patches or bars. Upper parts silvery to golden green, faint markings of olive-green above lateral line, with 10-15 indistinct olive-green bars below it. Belly and breast pale bluish gray to whitish. Cheeks 5 olive-green bars, radiate from eye across the side of the head. 1 bar extends forward to end of snout. Eyes – iris reddish. Tail – is often lighter in color at the base and outer edge, and dark or dusky between. Size – 12”-15” long. 

HABITAT: Clear, cool, swift, rocky streams or the gravelly shoals and bottom springs of lakes and ponds. Dominant bass of Ohio.

FOOD: Fish, insects, minute crustaceans, and crayfish.

SPAWNING: In 3 feet of water, male builds a nest which is a circular, saucerlike depression. Eggs, covered with glutinous substance, are laid in the nest. Male guards and cares for the nest. Creates air current by motion of fins, which keeps the 2000-25,000 eggs from being covered with debris. Incubation – 2 weeks. Young 1 inch long when month old. By fall, - 3”=6” long. Increase pound a year, under favorable conditions until they reach maximum weight. Spawning period – April – July.

INTERESTING FACTS: Nest built by male. Male fans away silt with tail until 3” or 4” below sand gravel is reached. Sand forms ridge around nest. Hibernates, stays in deep places under rocks until spring. Flesh – white firm, flaky, fine tasting, and juicy.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for man. Unexcelled as a freshwater game fish. Feeds upon larvae of aquatic insects.


Largemouth Black Bass. Aplites salmoides. Raf. 

DESCRIPTION: Body – spindle-shaped, tapering at the ends, somewhat more stocky and robust than the smallmouth. Spiny dorsal fin – separated from soft dorsal fin by very deep notch. Dorsal fin – 10 spiny rays, 12-13 soft rays. Fins – pale olive buff. Dorsal and tail fin darker than others. Anal – opaque whitish toward tip. Scales – 8 or 9; 62-68; 14-18. Mouth very large and muscular, the angle extends beyond eye. Color – back and sides above rather dark green, becoming lighter toward center. Body dimly mottled with darker not well defined blotches. Middle of side – dark streak, irregular blotches of sage-green. Belly – opaque, greenish white, sometimes with faint rosy tint. When markings are present, they tend to form longitudinal streaks of aggregated spots. Eyes – iris, sooty green with bronze luster and narrow inner rim of gold. Size – 15”-18” long.

HABITAT: Lives in sluggish waters of lakes, ponds, bayous. Hides among weeds common in northcentral and southern Ohio.

FOOD: Minnows, crayfishes, and other small fishes.

SPAWNING: Male builds nest, usually places among fallen leaves on fibrous rootlets on coarse sand or gravel. Eggs, covered with glutinous substance are deposited on the bottom of the nest, usually in rows. Hatch in 8 to 10 days. Male guards and cares for nest. Young stay in very compact schools. First year – young 6” long. Spawning period – May or June.

INTERESTING FACTS: Nest built by male scooping sand and gravel out of center to form ridge about nest 2” high. Can leap 5” or 6” out water.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for men. Feeds upon aquatic insects. Popular game fish.


Spotted Bass – Kentucky Black Bass. Micropterus pseudaplites. Hubbs

DESCRIPTION: Body – rather spindlelike more streamlined in form than the other basses. Trifle thicker in width and proportionately deeper than adult small and largemouth basses. Spiny dorsal fin – gently curved and is connected with soft part of fin by a membrane. Dark spot at the base of the caudal fin which appears as a continuation of the dark lateral bend. Distinct rows of evenly arranged spots below dark lateral band very dark at tail. Dorsal fin – 10 spiny rays; 13-15 soft rays. Mouth – about the same as smallmouth bass, lower jaw averaging but a trifle longer. Single patch of


28
Teeth on tongue. Color – resembles more closely that of largemouth bass. Dusky spot at tip of gill flap. Dark ban extends from tip of snout back to posterior edge of gill flap. Size – 14” or sometimes less. Scales – 7-8; 59-69; 16-20.

HABITAT: More quiet, silty lowland pools of streams in fairly deep water. Streams of southern Ohio. FOOD: Minnows and crayfishes.

SPAWNING: Spawning of this fish was studied in the hatchery at Newton, Ohio; it is similar to smallmouth bass. Nests in water 3 feet deep on hard sandy silt with some gravel. Male guards and cares for nest. Eggs develop in 4-5 days. Most of young 1 inch long by first of July. Spawning period – May.

INTERESTING FACTS: Fingerlings hardier than those of the other two species, largemouth and smallmouth bass. At spawning time, the adult fish change in color.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable game fish. Flesh is firm. Fine food.


Rock Bass or Red-eye. Amloplites rupestris. Raf.

DESCRIPTION: Body – Sunfishlike shape. Mouth is large; upper jaw extends past the large eye. Single patch of teeth on tongue. Fins – Anal fin distinctly shorter than the dorsal fin. Spiny dorsal fin – 11-12 spiny rays, rather long and low. Scales – 6-7, (sometimes 8) 39-43; 11 or 12, (sometimes 13). Lateral line usually complete. Color – upper parts olive-green, with black mottlings and brassy reflections. Each scale of sides with a central squarish black spot on band, these forming lengthwise stripes full length of fish, most prominent below lateral line. Belly – bluish white with darker spots on each scale. Breast – speckled with fine black dots with some blue, green, or red. Cheeks and gills brassy. There is a black spot on the angle of the gill-cover and dark mottlings on the soft dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. Eye – iris is scarlet. Size – 8”-10” long.

HABITAT: Found in Ohio with smallmouth bass. Clear streams and lakes. Congregates in small schools about rocky situations, gravelly bars about milldams and in the vicinity of weed patches in ponds. FOOD: Insects, crayfish, and small fish. 

SPAWNING: Builds nest on a gravel bed, or on a bar over which a slight current is flowing. Depth of water 1’-4’. Parent fish defends nest with great vigor. Spawning period – May or June.

INTERESTING FACTS: Attractive looking fish. For its size a good fighter, but fails to keep fighting when hooked. Nest similar to that of black bass.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Average weight – 1 pound to 1 1/2 pounds. Much sought after fish by all classes of fishermen. Flesh – soft, has somewhat muddy flavor. As a pan fish, it is about the average.


Bluegill or Blue Sunfish
Helioperca incisor. Cuvier and Valenciennes.

DESCRIPTION: Body – short, deep, and compressed, almost round in outlines. Head – short and small. Mouth – very oblique, jaws equal and small. Teeth – slender and sharp. Gill – always rather wide and bluntly rounded posteriorly. Conspicuously striated longitudinally. Margin membranous, very narrow or lacking. Gill flap – deep blue black. Fins – Long pointed pectoral fin. Dorsal fin – high; 10 spiny rays, 10-12 soft rays. Dorsal with a black blotch at base of last ray. Scales – 6; 38-48; 13-14. Color – Body – slaty hue sometimes olive-green or bluish green, darker above. Breast and belly – coppery red. Length – 6”-8” long.

HABITAT: Lives in deep, clear lakes, in water – 5’-20’ deep. Common in lakes and reservoirs in northern half of Ohio.

FOOD: Small crustaceans, aquatic insects and vegetation.

SPAWNING: Nest built in different situations – from open sandy shoals barren of vegetation to densely vegetated areas. Nest – 1/2’ -2 1/2’ in diameter and placed in from 1/2’-4’ of water. Spawning period – few spawn before last of April. Most nesting takes place during late May and June, end in late seasons well into July.

INTERESTING FACTS: Bluegill thrives wherever largemouth bass does. Nest in colonies. Move in schools. Also found in overflow ponds along the larger rivers. Guard nest and care for young as do other members of the family.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Easy fish to propagate, due to its pond habits. Flesh is firm and flaky. Considered to be among the best of Ohio’s fishes for the table.


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Longear Sunfish. Xenotis magalotis poltastes. Cope

DESCRIPTION: Body – short and deep. Gill flap – long and black. Fins – membranes of soft dorsal fin and anal fin pale orange. Pectorals are dusky, rounded and short. Dorsel fin is low; 10 spiny rays, 11 short rays. Has a very steep forehead and back before the dorsal. Scales – 5; 37-39; 14. Color – Light to darker olive. Sides irregularly spotted with orange and emerald. Spots of emerald often form indistinct, wavy vertical streaks. Belly – pale to bright orange. Cheeks – light olive to orange, with wavy streaks of emerald. Eye – Iris reddish before and behind pupil. Size – very small fish. In our northeastern counties not more than 4” long. The southern longer – 8” long.

HABITAT: Stream fish – lives in medium sized streams. Most common in southern Ohio.

FOOD: Aquatic insects and their larvae, also leeches and worms.

SPAWNING: Most of nests are built in sandy gravel, in from 1’ to 3’ of water. Little is known of the breeding habits of the longear in Ohio. Spawning period – Most common in May and June.

INTERESTING FACTS: Close associate of the spotted bass and also the green sunfish. Is most brilliant in its breeding colors. Sometimes called “tobacco box” because of its “lidlike” gill flap.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Is advisable only to stock streams and small rivers of southern Ohio with this species. Practically of no value from fisherman’s standpoint. Has no commercial value. Southern longear is a scrappy fish.


Pumpkinseed – Common Sunfish. Eupotis gibbesus.
Linneaus

DESCRIPTION: Body – strongly compressed, short and deep. The back is very highly arched in adults. Ventral outline less curved than dorsal. Head – small and short. Mouth – small. Jews are equal. Teeth – short and stout, upper surfaces bluntly rounded. Gill flap – is velvety black behind with turkey red spot on posterior margin. Fins – Dorsal fin – rather high; 10, 11, or 12 spiny rays. Pectoral fins – long and pointed which distinguishes them from other sunfishes. Scales – 5; 35-40; 13 or 14. Color – Brilliant, from olive to grassy greenish, back and upper part of body finely front and darker behind, irregularly distributed, or may be dark all about a coppery-colored central spot. Belly – light olive to orange yellow. Cheeks and gills are crossed by 4 or 5 wavy lines of emerald. Inter spaces with coppery and gold over ground olive which produces a rich bronze. Eye – Iris a variegated blue and greenish barred with dull brownish to orange blotches. Size – 8” long.

HABITAT: Lakes, ponds and more sluggish streams which have plenty of aquatic plants. Abundant in northern Ohio.

FOOD: Small aquatic animals, insects and their larvae, snails, plants, worm and algae.

SPAWNING: Circular nest made by males; remove dead aquatic plants for a space 1 foot in diameter. Average depth of water at nests is 2 feet. Encircled by aquatic plants. Male guards and cares for the young. Spawning period – May to June.

INTERESTING FACTS: Pumpkinseed sunfish has been sent to Europe and has adapted itself to its new surroundings. Shaped like pumpkinseeds, whence the name.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Natural propagation in ponds quite successful. Good pan fish, but not especially important as commercial product. One of best fishes for keeping ponds free from mosquitoes. Stocking the ponds, lakes, and to a lesser extent the sluggish streams of the northern half of the state will yield best results.


Green Sunfish. Apomotis cyanellus. Raf.

DESCRIPTION: Body – elongate, robust, becoming somewhat shorter and deeper with age. Head – broad and flat above; profile rather long and usually quite straight. Mouth – rather large, with the upper jaw extending to the middle of the eye. Teeth – long and bluntly pointed. Gill flap – bony portion very dark green to blackish, posterior edging darker. Membranous margin of flap coppery to purplish. Fins – Dorsal fin – 9 or 10 spiny rays are less than half the height of the soft portion. 10-12 soft rays. Anal fin – 3 spiny rays, short and strong, 9 or 10 soft rays. Pectorals – short and rounded behind. Scales – 6 or 7; 45-49; 15 or 16. Color – Olive with a yellowish or


29—B
Green Sunfish. (Continued)

coppery tinge below. Each scale with a spot of emerald green, which form more of less distinct rows. Sides marked with seven or eight vertical dusky bars, fading backward. Two spots of emerald green in front of eye, and one just behind it. 3 or 4 wavy lines of emerald-green on cheek below eye and 2 or 3 lines of same color extending backward across. Gill. Eye – Iris-red. Black spot on posterior part of both soft anal and soft dorsal fins. Size – 8” long.

HABITAT: True creek sunfish. Lives in silty bottom creeks with sluggish current; also smaller lakes and ponds. Common in extreme northern Ohio, also general in central and southern part. 

FOOD: Insects, worms, crayfishes and small fishes.

SPAWNING: Nests built in sandy silt, hard clay, and sometimes gravel. Spawning period – May or June.

INTERESTING FACTS: Sometimes called blue sunfish, creek sunfish, blue-spotted sunfish. Having 3 spiny anal rays distinguishes this sunfish from the rest.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Sprightly little fighter; with worm bait takes the hook readily. Excellent pan fish. Makes good fish for propagation purposes.


White Crappie. Pomoxis annularis. Raf.

DESCRIPTION: Body – elongate, compressed, and back elevated. Sunfishlike shape. Head – long. Mouth – large, and oblique. Membrane of the jaws is quite thin and transparent. Fins – Large anal and dorsal fins of equal size. Dorsal and tail fins mark-very olive, mottled with dark green. Dark marks on upper part of body have a tendency to form marrow vertical bars. Eye – Iris of the eye is dark with a silvery or golden border. Size – 12” long.

HABITAT: Thrives well in a soft mud bottom. Very common in Ohio, the greatest number are to be found in large reservoirs, small rivers and creeks.

FOOD: Carnivorous. Insects, worms, crayfish, crustaceans, Gizzard Shad and other fishes.

SPAWNING: Nests built by males are similar to those of other sunfishes. Placed under same conditions and same localities as those of largemouth bass. Spawning period – May.

INTERESTING FACTS: Sometimes called “Crappie,” “Speckled Perch,” “Shy Fish.” Collect about the submerged top of a fallen tree, sunken brush, and about mill dams. “Annularis” – means having rings and does have a gold ring around the iris of the eye.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Flesh is flaky, soft during warmest part of the year. Has a decidedly sweet and pleasant flavor. Great numbers are taken daily throughout spring fishing season. Much equipment is rented and sold each year for the purpose of catching crappies. Free biting fish, no remarkable game qualities, when hooked. More crappies are caught with hook and line in Ohio than any other fish. Can be propagated, naturally, in great numbers in small ponds.


White Bass. Lepibema chrysops. Ref.

DESCRIPTION: Body – rather deep and compressed. Back elevated. Head – subconic, flattened at sides. Mouth – terminal, lower jaw extends considerably pest the upper ones. Fins – Dorsal fin has 9-11 spiny rays, 13 or 14 soft rays. Anal fin has 3 spines first short, about 1/2 the length of second; second distinctly shorter than third; 11-13 soft rays. Scales – 8 or 9; 52-57; 13 or 15. Lateral line – usually complete and nearly straight. Color – silvery, slightly tinged with yellow below. Sides have narrow dusky lined about five above the lateral line, one along it, and a variable number below it. Size – 12”-18” long.

HABITAT: Lakes, deep rivers, especially where water is normally clear, also reservoirs. Formerly very common in the Ohio River.

FOOD: Carnivorous. Smaller fishes, crayfishes, mollusks, Gizzard Shads and larger insects and their larvae. Smaller white bass eat microscopic crustaceae, aquatic insects and worms.

SPAWNING: Leave the deeper waters of the lake and go in near short or semi-migrate 


29—C
White Bass. (Continued)

up the larger rivers to spawn. Eggs are not laid in nests, but are deposited in midwater. Sink slowly until they come in contact with some objects to which they adhere.

Spawning period – April and May. Majority spawn in May. Often spawning in June if season has been backward.

INTERESTING FACTS: The silvery color and two separate dorsal fins distinguish it from black bass. Sometimes called white lake bass, and striped bass. Center of abundance – Great Lakes.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: This species best of freshwater game fishes in eastern North America. Flesh – fine quality, firm, flaky, usually white, and of food flavor. Game fish of importance. Caught with live minnows, grubs and angleworms. Will also rise to the fly.

Yellow Perch. Perca flavescens. Mitchell

DESCRIPTION: Body – Only moderately elongate, considerably compressed and back elevated, highest in front of spiny dorsal fin. Jaw – Maxillary jaw extends to the middle of the eye. Mouth – moderate in size. Teeth – 7 or 8 bands end in sharp bristlelike teeth. Fins – Dorsal fin – high and spiny. The spiny and soft dorsals are separated 12-14 spiny rays and 12-13 soft rays. Anal fin has 2 spiny rays and 7-8 soft rays. Lower fins – bright golden. Spiny dorsal fin – gray, usually with a black spot on the last two membranes. Soft dorsal and tail fins – plain green. Pectorals – transparent grayish green. Ventral and anal fins – light grayish green or orange to crimson according to season and habitat. Scales – 6 or 7; 57-62; 15-18. Color – Sides and back brassy green to golden yellow, with seven broad blackish bars crossing the sides from the center of the back extending nearly to belly. Belly – whitish with green, salmon, and yellow reflections. Size – 12” long.

HABITAT: Not a stream fish unless water is deep and sluggish with fair amount of aquatic vegetation. Lives in deep, clear lakes, with plenty of aquatic plants in depth of 10’ or more of water. Center of abundance in northern Ohio.

FOOD: Microscopic crustaceans, insects, worms, larger crustaceans and small fishes. 

SPAWNING: Temperature – 44°-50° when eggs are laid. Deposited in long gelatinous strings in shallow water. These strings drift about until they catch upon a root, submerged plant or other object. Adult fish are found in shallower water during spawning season. Spawning period – Bulk of them spawn in March and April at Buckeye Lake, later in northern Ohio and Lake Erie.

INTERESTING FACTS: Lake fish. Always live in schools, “Flavescens” – means yellowish – hence the name Yellow Perch. Closely allied to the perch of Europe.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Good game fish. Very active throughout the winter when most of the largest specimens of the fish are taken. One of very bent pan fishes. Flesh – white, firm and excellent flavor.


Golden Shiner Minnow
Notemigonus crysoleucas crysoleucas. Mitchill

DESCRIPTION: Body – Moderately elongate in the young, in adults becoming very deep and strongly compressed. Thickness in predorsal region. Head – small, pointed, and flattened on the sides. Mouth – rather small and oblique. Jaws about equal. Teeth – 5-5 to 4-4, constricted at base and sometimes slightly hooked. These are found on the two innermost gill arches, in two rows next to gullet. Fins – Dorsal fin – 8 rays, set distinctly behind ventrals. Anal fins – 11-14 rays. Tips of the dorsal and anal fins very dark. Lower fins yellow. Ventrals bright orange at tips in breeding individuals of both sexes. Scales – 9-11; 45-52; 3. Lateral line complete, broadly and deeply decurved. Color – a clear dark greenish olive above, becoming steel blue in some lights. Sides – silvery, with bright, golden reflections. A triangular spot of dark color at base of exposed portion of each scale. Size – 6”-8” long.

HABITAT: In Ohio, found in ponds, quiet pools, and weedy bayous. Extremely abundant in weedy bayous in Ohio. Yellow pond lily is its shelter.

FOOD: Mud, mollusks, insects, entomostracae, and vegetable substances.

SPAWNING: Eggs are extremely adhesive and contain no oil globule. Spawning period – From the first to last of May.

INTERESTING FACTS: Active all winter. Lives well in an aquarium. Also called “Bream” and “Roach.” 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Good bait for black bass. Excellent pan fish.


29—D

Bluntnose Minnow. Hyborhynchus notatus. Raf.

DESCRIPTION: Body – Is elongate and a little compressed. Back is broad and rather flat. Head – small, but rather broad and flat above. Mouth – small, inferior, nearly or wholly horizontal. Tip of upper lip below level of lower margin of orbit. Upper jaw scarcely longer than eye, reaching to posterior nostril; lower jaw the same. Teeth – snout bears three rows of 14 disproportionately large teeth. Fins – Dorsel fin – 1-8 spiny rays. Anal fin – 7 rays. Pectorals – short. Fins are small. Dark spot at base of bausal (tail) fin. Dorsal fin – a dark blotch in front on first 3 rays, little less than 1/2 way up from base of fin. Other fins plain, except for faint, dusky lines crossing dorsal and caudal fins. Scales – 6 or 7; 41-44; 4. Lateral line usually complete, with a slight downward curve in front of ventral fins. Color – pale olive above, all scales of upper part of body with dark edgings prominent. Sides – a dull silvery bluish, under which is a lead colored lateral stripe, that extends across gill and through eye to end of snout. Belly – whitish. Size – 2”-3 1/2" long.

HABITAT: Most abundant in creeks and smaller streams with either muddy shoals or gravally bottoms. Ohio Valley.

FOOD: Mud-eating entomostracan, threadlike algae and vegetable debris.

SPAWNING: Eggs are sometimes laid on the under surface of various objects submerged in shallow water, and in quiet water about 2’ deep. Eggs are guarded by one of the parents. Spawning period – May – June; sometimes July.

INTERESTING FACTS: Seems to find satisfactory residence in streams of any size of lakes or ponds of any kind.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Not a good line bait, but sold as such. Food for larger fishes. Easily propagated.


Channel Catfish. Ictalurus punctatus. Ref.

DESCRIPTION: Body – Is most slender of all catfishes; it is scarcely compressed. Back is very little elevated. Profile is long, almost straight. Head is small and narrow. Eyes – placed not wholly in advance of the middle of the head. Oval shape. Mouth – Upper jaw is slightly longer than lower. Maxillary barbels or whiskers are black, long and slender, reaching past gill-opening. Fins – Are greenish, except ventrals and pectorals. Anal fin – silvery band at base. Ventrals and pectorals – a smoky greenish gray. Dorsal fin is high, places a little nearer snout. Caudal or tail fin is deeply forked. Anal fin is long and rounded with 25-29 rays. Color – Head and upper parts of body dark to lighter olive, with coppery luster on cheeks and sides above lateral line. Sides below lateral line light olive with much silvery luster and with small spots darker. Belly is pearl-gray in region of ventrals, more yellowish forward. Chin barbels are whitish or ashen. Size – Grows to about 30 pounds of weight.

HABITAT: Lakes and larger rivers. Lives in deep water with clean gravel or sand bottom where there is good current. Generally distributed throughout Ohio.

FOOD: Microscopic crustaceans, mayfly nymphs, midge larvae, worms, clams, snails, crayfishes and fish algae and other vegetable mater.

SPAWNING: The spawning fish use sunken kegs, or holes in the bank. Can be raised under more or less artificial conditions in large ponds with clean bottoms and good depth of water. Spawning period – Spring and summer. April to late August.

INTERESTING FACTS: “Punctatus” means “spotted” – because of black spots on its sides. Sometimes called “Fiddler.” Cuticular sensory organs are highly developed.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Fine game fish, takes live minnows readily. Strong fighter beneath water surface and is bold, - second to no fish of its size. Good food fish – flesh is white, firm and rich in flavor.


Black Bullhead. Ameirurus melas melas. Raf.

DESCRIPTION: Body – Chubbiest of the 3 species of bullheads. Head is large and wide. Eyes are small. Mouth is wide. Jaws about equal. Teeth-5-10 indistinct weak and short teeth. Fins – Anal fin-outer edge semicircular in shape-17-20 soft rays. Caudal is short, square, slightly emarginated. Color – Very dark brown to blackish, deepest color on back. Belly is usually white. Size – Smallest of the bullheads.

HABITAT: Sluggish streams with muddy bottoms and always roily. In small ponds, quar-


29-E
Black Bullhead. (Continued)

ry holes and small reservoirs. Most universally distributed in Ohio.

FOOD: Aquatic insect larvae, adult insects, microscopic crustaceans, clams, snails, crayfish and fish, and vegetable matter. Pondweeds and seeds of water lilies.

SPAWNING: Eggs laid in water from 6”-4’ in depth. Water temperature between 65° and 80°. Nest in a cavity which may or may not be hollow log, under an old stump, roots of dense cat-tails rusty buckets and tin cans. Male cares for nest and young and holds young in schools until 1 1/2" long. Spawning period – May to early summer.

INTERESTING FACTS: Not native east of Alleghenies. Sometimes called “Norned Pout”, “Common Bullheads.” Related to Brown and Yellow Bullheads. The three species are similar in shape and color.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Propagated most successfully at our state owned farms. Among best known and sought after of Ohio fishes. Food fish.



30
TOADS AND FROGS

Toads and frogs have always been misunderstood and misrepresented and will continue to be until we learn more shout: (a) The dangers and struggles in the life of each (b) Their economic value (c) Our comparison to English and French gardeners (d) Their importance in the animal chain.

The number of eggs laid by each animal averages around one thousand, yet by the time the young are ready to leave the water their numbers are sadly lessened, due to ponds drying up after eggs have been laid; eggs or tadpoles eaten by larger aquatic inhabitants; on land many times eaten by snakes or birds; often tramped on by cattle and men; also used for commercial purposes.

The value of one toad to a farmer is estimated at $19.44 in a single season, because of the many noxious insects which it consumes. Check on the flying insects is by birds and bats, moles and shrews decrease insect life in the soil, while toads, frogs, and snakes perform a similar task on the ground.

At the present time, we are far behind English and French gardeners in our protections of toads and frogs. Artificial shelters should be provided. These can be made by digging shallow holes and partially covering with stones or boards. Brooding pools should be provided near the shelters. Stagnant, rather than running, water should be used as it has higher temperature and no current.

The development of toad and frog eggs into adults is a very interesting process. This change is termed metamorphis. There is very little different between the toad and frog tadpoles; which makes it difficult to distinguish between them during this process.


LIFE CYCLE OF FROG

Sometime between April and July (depending upon the species), frogs deposit their eggs in shallow, stagnant water. The males go to the breeding ponds a week ahead of the females. Spring Peeper is the first frog to come out of hibernation, therefor lays its eggs last of April; Leopard Frog is second one to deposit its eggs (Around May 1st), the Tree Frog around June 1st; is followed closely by Green Frog the last of June; the Bullfrog is the last frog to come out of hibernation and the last to deposit her eggs, (around the 1st of July). Frogs deposit their eggs in clusters from 2-3 to great masses. Toads deposit their eggs in two long chains. The egg is surrounded by a jelly which protects it from dirt, bacteria, fungi as well as from the attack of aquatic insects. The eggs are round at first, then they gradually elongate until you can see the tadpole swimming in the jelly. Frog tadpoles are mottled; toad tadpoles are black. The head develops first end can be told by the direction the tadpole swims. No mouth is seen at first, but the place where it will appear is shown by “N” shaped elevations called suckers. These secrete a sticky substance by which it attaches itself to plants. In a few days, fingerlike projections grow out from the gill plates and blood can be seen flowing through them. In about ten days, the gills disappear (folds of skin from side of head cover them). It now looks like a large head, tail and no body. The external gills (replaced by internal) are still used for breathing. Water, from which oxygen is obtained, is drawn through nostrils into the mouth, passing over the gills and flowing out at a small opening at the left side of the body. The mouth appears when tadpole is about 10 days old. The life for the tadpole, the next few weeks, seems to have but four needs: to swim rapidly, to eat constantly, to rest a little sometimes and to grow. Hind legs bud out first (when 1-2 months old, varying with species) two weeks later, the right front leg can be seen plainly through the skin of the right side; the left leg can be seen through breathing pore, about 2 hours after right leg is pushed through skin of right side, the left leg comes through breathing pore. On this day, the tadpole breaths with much effort. The tail is dissolved by blood or


31
Lymph stream and carried back into the body (can reproduce itself or grow new legs if bitten off by some aquatic enemy). As tadpole grows older it comes to surface for air as lungs are developing. 

Tadpoles of toads and frogs, develop in from 40 to 90 days (except Green Frog which takes one year and Bullfrog requires two years.

Toads skin is dry, warty and prevents evaporation (Toads drink water through their skin). Frogs skin is smooth and shiny.


Leopard Frog. Rana pipiens. Schreber

DESCRIPTION: The common frog in eastern United States. Male is about 3” while the female is larger around 5”. Olive green to bronze above; back, sides and legs have prominent dark irregular spots rimmed with white; which occupy less surface than the space between them. The body is very slender; the skin is smooth and slippery; head very aristogratic looking. Voice is a very low, guttural croaking. (Both male and female sing). Legs are strong for jumping.

HABITAT: Makes home among marshes, ponds and cat-tail pools.

FOOD: Spiders, grasshoppers, beetles, crickets and other small creatures.

LIFE CYCLE: Around the first of May, the Leopard Frogs lay their eggs in masses, containing four to five hundred eggs, attaches the mass to sticks or grasses. Tadpole period is only from 75 to 90 days; so late July and August, the recently transformed Leopard Frogs populate the margins of ponds.

INTERESTING FACTS: Often confused with Pickerel which is bright yellow underneath in place of white; the spots of the Pickerel Frog are more regular and rectangular than those of the Leopard Frog and are not rimmed with white. In order to protect itself from an enemy, it squirts distasteful fluid. Goes to streams to hibernate around the first of October and appears in spring when skunk cabbage blooms. During the breeding season, they are very easy to capture.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destroyer of insects good for food. Thousands of them are used yearly for dissection and experimentation in laboratories of universities, colleges and high schools.


Tree Frog. Hyla versicolor. Le Conte

DESCRIPTION: As the scientific name suggests the color of Tree Toads is changeable and it may change from white-gray to green to brown to match its environment. Most conspicuous markings are two dark bands on each leg and an irregular star on back. Underparts washed with bright orange-yellow. Male and female are both about the some size, about two inches. The skin is very granular and has appearance of being too large. Voice is a reedy tremolo like a bloating lamb.

HABITAT: This is a tree climber. Its favorite perch is in the crotch of a limb, where it can hardly be told from the bark. Besides wooded places, they also frequent vines and window boxes near dwellings.

FOOD: Insects, flies, beetles, ants, plant lice and crickets.

LIFE CYCLE: When the flower Jack in Pulpit blooms, they come out of their winter hiding places and migrate to their breeding ponds. By the first of June, they lay their light brownish eggs (1,500-2,000) attached in small groups to plant stems near surface of water. When seven weeks old the little frogs (1/2” long) are ready to leave the water.

INTERESTING FACTS: Hibernate early in September in crevices in trees. Sticky pads on the tips of its toss enable it to climb trees readily. Just before a thunderstorm, its voice can be heard. Its coloring matches perfect with its environment.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable for the destruction of fruit destroying insects.


Bullfrog. Rana catesbeiana. Shaw

DESCRIPTION: The largest of the frogs, sometimes reaching 8” in length. Male and 


32
Female are about the same size. They are green or greenish brown on back and sides with white slightly mottled underparts, and yellow throats. (Male usually plain green and female brown and spotted). Their skin, like other frogs is smooth, cold and slippery; head is broad and flat; ear larger than eye; legs very strong with webbed feet, which make it a powerful jumper and swimmer. Voice is a sonorous boom “Jug of Rum”.

HABITAT: Favorite haunts are in ponds and shallows which are overgrown with pickerel weed and arrow-head. Most aquatic of all frogs, seldom leaves the water even to hibernate.

FOOD: Any small life which it can swallow as such as: snails, worms, insects, crayfish, smaller frogs and fish.

LIFE CYCLE: Usually lay their eggs at night during the last of June or in July/ The egg mass, a film of jelly containing 10,000 – 20,000 small eggs, nearly 2 feet across and floats near the surface, anchored to plants. They remain in tadpole stage until 2 years old.

INTERESTING FACTS: Hibernates late in October and comes out of hibernation later than any other frog. (Around June 1st) They are distinguished from green frog by absence of ridges on each side of back. To catch an insect, their tongue, which is attached on front of jaw, is thrown out from back of throat. Insect held by a sticky fluid on tip of tongue. Lids are pulled up from below when eyes are closed. Rapid change of color to match environment serves as protection.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Helps to control insects of waterways – good eating.


Green Frog. Rena clamitans. Letrelle.

DESCRIPTION: Larger than Leopard Frog. Male about 3 1/2” and female around 5 1/2”. Varies in color from brilliant metallic green on head and shoulders to dark olive or brown, posteriorly. Under parts are white. Male’s throat bright orange; females white. Their voice is a pleasing, ktung-ktung like the plucking strings of a cello.

HABITAT: Green frogs and bull frogs live together in swamps and ponds, but the green frog forages along small streams not often frequented by the Bullfrog. Green Frogs are solitary, only one or two staying in one pool or in the bends of the stream bank.

FOOD: Worms and small fish.

LIFE CYCLE: During June and early July, the eggs are laid in a pond in a mass of 3,000 – 4,000 spread out like a film, nearly a foot across. Many are destroyed by drying. The eggs usually hatch in about one week; however, the tadpoles do not metamorphose to frogs until the following spring or early summer.

INTERESTING FACTS: Has conspicuous ridge down each side of its back which distinguishes it from the Bullfrog. It molts its skin four or more times per year. If the temperature is not too low, it is active throughout most of the winter. Protected by their rapid change of color to match environment.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable destroyer of insects.


Spring Peeper. Hyla crucifer Weid.

DESCRIPTION: Smallest of the genius Hyla in North America. Male about 3/4” and female about 1”.  Another distinguishing feature is the dark multiplication sign which it wears on its back. Varies in color from light fawn to dark brown, with red, ashy or yellow tones. Underparts are white, washed with yellow, though males throat is brown. Body is very delicate and translucent. Voice is a sweet, clear, shrill, high pitched peep.

HABITAT: Found in woods, although less arboreal than tree frogs, also in swamps and meadows.

FOOD: Feeds mostly at night on worms, flies and small insects.

LIFE CYCLE: About first or second week in May, they deposit their eggs singly, never in masses, among leaves and grass in shallow water. In July, the tadpoles have developed and come on land when they are little half-inch frogs.

INTERESTING FACTS:  Throat movement is much more rapid than any other frogs. Discs on feet very prominent. Hibernates during December and January. Earliest frog to appear, starts to sing when Pussy Willows are gray. It is very quick and shy making it hard to see or catch. Its small size and rapid color offer it complete protection.


32-A
Relation to Conservation: Destroys many injurious insects.


American Toad. Bufo americanus, Holbrook.

DESCRIPTION:  The familiar amphibian throughout the eastern states. The male averages around 2 1/2”  in size while the female is much larger around 4”. Color is variable on top from light to darker brown, with dark spots on back usually enclosing a single wart (red or yellow in color) and light brown stripes down the back; underparts a yellowish white. Female is brighter and more variegated than male; her throat is grayish white and the male’s is nearly black. The long, strong hind legs of the toad show its adaptability for jumping. The feet, with 5 toes, (somewhat webbed) have spurs for digging. Front legs are shorter and have only 4 toes. The skin, which is very rough, dry and warty feels cold to the touch because it is a cold blooded animal (body maintains temperature of surrounding atmosphere). The song, made by a large vocal sac under throat expanding 3 times the size of head, is a pleasant, crooning sound.

HABITAT: Lives in cool damp places such as under rocks, steps, cellars, etc. 

FOOD: Toad is always hungry for his gastronomic ability is so rapid he must have at least 4 meals per day. Feeds on cutworms, crickets, flies, mosquitoes and slugs.

LIFE CYCLE: Toads go to quiet water in May and lay their eggs in two long chains of 4,000 to 12,000. Eggs hatch in about 12 days. In late July, the young toads hop out of water onto the land.

INTERESTING FACTS: On rainy days, many toads come out of their burrows. Toad burrows into the ground backwards in late October and comes out around April 1st. When outside skin gets dry, old and too tight, a new skin grows underneath and the top skin is shed. (Toad pulls it over his head and usually swallows it.) Distasteful fluid from warts protect toad (not poisonous to man, but irritating to their enemies.)

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable as insect and slug destroyer.


Snapping Turtles. Chelydra serpentine. (Linnaeous).

DESCRIPTION: Is the largest of the fresh water turtles found in United States. Full grown turtles commonly weigh 25 – 30 pounds and arc over two feet long. The carapace (top shell) with three broken ridges is brown or olive in color, sometimes becomes moss covered and easily is mistaken for a stone at the bottom of rivers. The plastron (lower shell) is a dull yellow. Their shells are rather small (upper about 8”x6 3/4” x 2” high, lower 5 1/2” x 5”) allowing free action of the legs, head and long neck, however, the head is so large that it can be pulled only part way into the shell. The strong jaws, which terminate in strong hooks and can easily inflict serious wounds, are the snappers means of protection.

HABITAT: The turtles stay in ponds and meandering marsh streams, embedded in the mud on river bottoms or hang relaxed in the water with only their nostrils out.

FOOD: They capture swift moving animals as: fish, young waterfowl, small aquatic animals and even insects, snails, crayfish and occasionally dead animals, therefor, it is a good scavenger. Sometimes they eat water lily stems.

LIFE CYCLE: The female leaves the water in the spring and searches for a nesting places; she selects soft, damp, earth, were she scoops a hole in it by digging with her hind legs until body is nearly hidden; then, she lays twenty or more round hard-shelled eggs about 1” in diameter.

INTERESTING FACTS: Turtles appear sluggish, slow and awkward, but they can thrust forth their heads and snap their strong hooked jaws with lightning rapidity. Should be carried by tail when caught. It hibernates around November first and appears between January and March.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The turtle is destroyer of fish and waterfowl. Is excellent for food.


Soft-shelled Turtles. Amyda spinifora. LeSueur.

DESCRIPTION: Is easily distinguished from other turtles by its shell, which can be 


32-B
bent like a piece of rubber. The mature turtle is around 14” in length (the carapace 9 1/4"x7 1/4"x 1 1/2" high; plastron 6 1/4".) The upper shell is yellowish brown and the under shell is pure white and only covers part of the body, consequently it is very viscous. They are thoroughly aquatic animals, very swift swimmers with broadly webbed feet. This turtles can bend its long neck in an s-shaped curve and its narrow head terminates into a leathery snout with nostrils at the tip.

HABITAT: It loves in shallow, muddy bottom water never leaving it except to lay its eggs.

FOOD: Consists of animal life, fish and fowls.

LIFE CYCLE: To deposit their eggs the female turtles, although awkward and clumsy on land, crawl out of the water to lay several dozen white, round eggs in the moist sand of the shore.

INTERESTED FACTS: It usually floats just below the surface of the water with its nostrils thrust out into the air. Although this turtle has lungs and no gills it can stay under water a long time, securing oxygen from water. The mouth and throat are lined with tiny blood vessels, in which an exchange of gasses, oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place just as it does in the gills of fishes.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It keeps water pure as it acts as a scavenger. It is used for food.


Musk Turtle. Sternotherus odoratus Latrelle.

DESCRIPTION: Is one of our smallest turtles, the whole turtle only about 4”-5” long. Its carapace (top shell) is highly arched, smooth and brown; the plastron (lower shell) is yellowish in color, small cross-shaped and notched behind. Two narrow yellow strips extend along each side of the head and neck, one above the eye and one below the eye. It is usually covered with moss or algae which gives it the appearance of a long submerged stone. The male has a longer and stronger tail than the female and a patch of rough scales in the bend between the thigh and the leg.

HABITAT: Like the snapper it lives in the water, crawling along the bottoms or ponds and sluggish streams.

FOOD: Small fish, worms, insects or tadpoles.

LIFE CYCLE: The musk turtle only comes out of the water late in June to lay its eggs. Three to seven smooth, white elliptical eggs are laid in rotting stumps, longs or clumps of reeds. The newly hatched young are about half an inch long.

INTERESTING FACTS: Musk turtle is similar in habits, as well as appearance, to the snapping turtle. Can be distinguished by yellow strips on side of hand and absence of horny tip on tail. They give off a penetrating odor, from the muskglands near base of the hind legs, though not highly disagreeable. (Easily identified) It is very vicious and snaps in a manner similar to the snapping turtle.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Has no food value to man. It keeps the water pure for it acts as a scavenger. It also controls the multiplication of water life.

Illustration (CARAPACE, PLASTRON)



32-C
Illustration (The Life History of the Frog)



32-D
Illustration



32-E
Illustration



33

CULTIVATION OF WILDFLOWERS

Wildflowers are of unusual charm in the home grounds. However, many sorts have short blooming seasons. They often die down to the soil and the foliage effect is not lasting. This is especially true of the spring flowers. Rather than try to dig these plants from the wild, it is usually wiser to order the plants from some specialist. Plants purchased from these commercial concerns often will be better rooted than flowers one could collect.

In planting any of the wild flowers, study the natural conditions under which they grow. The nearer, you can imitate these conditions, the greater chance of success you will have.

Most of the forest flowers will require a quantity of leaf mold; whereas, the pariarie and meadow flowers require but ordinary good soil.

There is a line that almost divides the State of Ohio into two equal areas, extending almost north and south, passing through the state a little west of Columbus. On the west side of the state, a limestone formation is found; on the east, a shale—a soil which lacks lime. Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Partridgeberry, Wintergreen and members of the Heather family (Ericaceae) dislike lime in the soil.

FLOWER CALENDAR
Chart


SUGGESTIONS ON GATHERING WILD FLOWERS

It is desirable that these instructions be read by all who have a sincere desire to preserve our native flora. They are revised from, “A Key to the Flowering Plants of Cincinnati and Vicinity,” by Professor O. T. Wilson.

(1)	Exercise the same care in picking wild flowers that you would in picking flowers in your garden.
(2)	Whenever possible, do not walk on the plants – you would not walk on your home garden.
(3)	The leaves of the plant are its food factories; if you remove all the leaves in picking any flower, you are destroying the factory, and taking away from the plant the opportunity to store food in its rootstock or bulb for the next season’s growth.
(4)	Picking flowers removes potential seed. This is especially important in the case of annuals and biennials.
(5)	If you see only a few flowers of a species in the woods, leave them, even though that particular plant may not be classes as rare or disappearing.
(6)	Do not pick flowers, even common ones, if you do not intend to take them home with you. There is no excuse for picking flowers only to throw them away an hour later.
(7)	Pick flowers by breaking their stems sharply, or cutting, not by pulling. Pulling loosens the roots and may cause permanent injury to the plant.
(8)	Avoid excessive picking.
(9)	We do not advocate no picking of wild flowers; we advocate discriminate, thoughtful, loving picking.


NEED OF CONSERVING THE FOLLOWING FLOWERS

The reasons are stated in each case. The recommended plants are compiled from lists of the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America, Mrs. E. G. Britton, Professor O. T. Wilson, and Herbert Durand.


SPRING FLOWERS

AZALEAS. The Azaleas are becoming scarce in many parts of the country. The remaining plants are being ruined by the breaking off of large branches. 

BLOODROOT (Sanguinaria canedensis). Picking the leaves destroys the plant. 

BLUE-EYED MARY (Collinsia verna) An annual which depends upon seed production to persist.

COLUMBINE (Aquilegia Canadensis). Picking the flowers carefully will not injure the plants, but when pulled carelessly, the plants are uprooted. 

DRAGONROOT (Arisaema dracontium). Related to Jack-in-the-pulpit. Becoming rare. 

AMERICAN MAIDENHAIR FERN (Adiantum). Generally destroyed by thoughtless persons who pull the plants when gathering leaves.

CLIMBING FERM (Lygodium palmatum). Rare. There is a New England law against collecting this fern.

WALKING FERN (Camptosorus rhizophyllus). Found on rocky ledges. Difficult to transplant. Useless to pick but of great charm to see. 

FLOWERING DOGWOOD (Cornus florida). The broken specimens of this incomparable little tree are too common in our woods. 

GERARDIA, FALSE FOXGLOVE Some species, being annual, depend upon seed production to persist. They are generally parasitic on roots of other plants. Almost eradicated. 

GINSENG (Panax quinquefolia). For supposed medicinal properties.

GOLDEN GRASS (Hypoxis hirsute). Becoming rare.

GROUNDNUT (Apios tuberosa). Roots are edible. One of the surviving native plants with edible roots. Use reason in digging them so that they shall not be exterminated.

HEPATICA. Often called Live Wort (Hepatica triloba and H. acutiloba). Picking flowers does little harm except to prevent seeding. Don’t pick where scarce. 

IRIS, CRESTED (iris cristata). Being exterminated in Ohio. Buy plants. 

JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT (Arisaema triphyllum). Picking the leaves destroys the plants.

MARSH MARIGOLD (Caltha palustris). The drainage of swamps has eliminated proper conditions for growth. 

MERRYBELLS, BELLWORT, (Uvularia). Removing the stems results in poor growth for another year. 

MOUNTAIN LAUREL (Kalmia letifolia) The total destruction of this incomparable flower is a disgrace to some districts in which collectors have been allowed to break it by the wagon load.

ORCHIDS:-LADIES’ TRESSES (Spiranthes).

PURPLE FRINGED ORCHID (Habenaria fimbriata). 

SHOWY ORCHIS. (Orchis spectabile).

MOCCASIN FLOWER (Cypripedium acaule).

LADY’S SLIPPER ORCHID (Various Cypripediums).

PITCHER PLANT, SADDLE PLANT (Sarracenia purpurea).

ROSE GENTIAN (Sabatia). Member of Gentian family, therefore must produce seed. Grows in either sun or shade. A biennial.

SHOOTINGSTAR (Dodecatheon media). Grows in either sun or shade.

TOOTHWORT, CRINKLEROOT (Dentaria diphylla). May be picked if abundant.

SOLOMON’S SEAL, FALSE (Smilacine racemosa).

TRAILING-ARBUTUS (Enigaea repens). Becoming rare. Frequently, when flowers are picked, the whole plant is pulled up. Cutting a few sprays with a knife or shears will not injure the plant, but everyone should do his best to preserve this gem. It does not generally transplant, no matter how carefully it is treated. Dealers gros the plants from seed and sell them in pots.

TRILLIUM. Picking these flowers destroys the roots because the leaves are also taken.

TROUT LILY, DOGTOOTH VIOLET or YELLOW ADDER’S TONGUE (Erythronium americanum). It requires six or seven years for these to grow from seed. Although abundant they should be picked sparingly.

TWATSLADE (Liparis lilifolia). Rare. Plants are ruined if leaves are cut. One of the orchids.

TWINLEAF (Jeffersonia diphylla). An interesting and handsome flower. Pick but a few.

VIOLET, BIRDS-FOOT (Viola pedata). Becoming rare.



SUMMER FLOWERS

CARDINAL FLOWER (Lobelis cardinalis). These charming flowers are never too plentiful. Let us have more of them. Pick a few, but no more.

INDIAN PIPE. Monotrope unifloral. This is a strange colorless plant which is not valuable for cutting as it turns black.

MEADOW-BEAUTY (Phexia virginica). These dainty flowers wilt upon picking. Good in boggy places.

RHODODENRON. Cut the blooms sparingly. They were once very abundant in the acid soils but are now being ruined throughout most districts.

SHINLEAF (Pyrola elliptica).



35

AUTUMN FLOWERS

GENTIANS (Gentiana andrewsi, G. crinta, G. quinqueflora). These are rare flowers which depend for their life upon seed production.



WINTER FLOWERS

Collect sparingly the following: HOLLY (Ilex opaca). LAUREL (Kalmia). PARTRIDGEBERRY (Mitchella). WINTERBERRY (Ilex verticillata). GROUND PINE (Lycopodium).



MAY BE PICKED IF ABUNDANT IN YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD
In Spring or Early Summer

BANEBERRY (Actaea).

BEARDED-TONGUE (Pentstamon).

BELLFLOWER (Campanula).

BUTTERFLY WEED (Asclepias tuberosa).

CORAL-BERRY or INDIAN CURRANT (Symphoricarpos vulgaris).

DUTCHMAN’S BREECHES (Dicentra cucullaria). Take care not to pull the plants.

GERANIUM or CRANESBILL (Geranium maculatum). 

HONEYSUCKLE, CORAL (Lonicera sempervirens).

JERSEY TEA (Ceanothus americanus).

LILIES (Lilium). Cut the stems short so that a good quantity of leaves remain.

LOB ELIA, GREAT (Lobelia syphilitica).

LUPINES (Lupinus). 

MAY APPLE (Podophyllum peltatum). 

ROSES, WILD (Rosa).

SHADBLOW (Amelanchier Canadensis).

SNOWBERRY (Symphoricarpos racemosus).

SPRING BEAUTY (Claytonia virginica).

TURTLE-HEAD (Chelone glabra).

VIOLETS (Viola).

WIND FLOWER (Anemone).



IN AUTUMN

BAYBERRY (Myrica). Ferns. Don’t uproot the plants in picking the fronds.

SEA LAVENDE (Limonium).



MAY BE PICKED IN LARGE QUANTITIES
In Summer

ALFALFA (Medicago sativa).

BALM (Mellisa afficinalis).

BEDSTRAW (Galium).

BEE BALM (Monarda). 

BLACK-EYED SUSAN (Rudbeckis).

BOUNCING BET (Seponaria).

BUTTERCUP (Renunculus).

BUTTONBUSH (Cephalanthus).

CAMOMILE (Anthemis).

CELANDINE (Chelidonium).

DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale).

DAY LILY (Hemerocallis fulva).

ELDER (Sambucus)

EVENING PRIMROSE (Oenothera).

GROUND IVY (Nepta hederacea).

GROUNDSEL BUSH (Baccharis halimifolia).

HAWKWEED (Hieracum).

HAWTHORN (Crataegus).

HOUND’S TONGUE (Cynoglossum).

HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera).

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthus).

MEADOWSWEET (Filipendula).

MINT (Mentha).

MULLEIN (Verbascum).

MUSTARD (Brassica).

QUEEN ANNE’S LACE or WILD CARROT (Daucus carota).

SELF-HEAL (Prunella).

ST. JOHN’S WORT (Hypericum).

SWEET FERN (Comptonia).

TANSY (Tanacetum vulgare).

TOAD-FLAX (Linaria).

TRUMPET CREEPER (Bignonia).

VERBENAS, WILD (Verbena).



IN FALL

ASTER (Aster).

BITTERSWEET (Celastrus scandens).

BONESET (Eupatorium perfoliatum).

COMPASS PLANT (Silphium lacinatum).

GOLDEN-ROD (Solidago).

GRASSES. JOE-PYE-WEED (Eupatorium purpureum)

LOOSETRIFE, PURPLE (Lythrum salicaria).

SUNFLOWERS (Helianthus).

THISTLES (Cirsium and Onious).

YARROW (Achillea millefolium).



INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Learn to know flowers.
The use of flowers – medicinal – ornamental – domestic – etc.
Protection of flowers.
Poems, books, and songs on wild flowers.
What are weeds – which ones should be controlled?
Winter flowers – dish gardens – collecting and preserving flowers.
Make posters on the conservation of wild flowers.
Tell legends and stories of some wild flowers.
Collect pictures and make charts of flowers suitable for the different pollinators.


36—A
Chart


26—B
Chart


36 - C
Wild Geranium, Crane’s-bill, Alum-Root
Geranium maculatum

DESCRIPTION: Root – Stout perennial rootstock. Tough, slender, threadlike roots. Stem – Erect, 1 to 2 feet high, forking, slender, hairy, branching above, opposite. Long leaf stocks. Leaves – Simple. Older ones spotted with white, basal ones 3 to 6 inches wide, broadly heart or hand-shaped, with 3 to 5 deeply lobed, wedge shaped divisions, margin deeply out or toothed at end, opposite, rough-hairy. Flowering Period – April to July. Often all summer. Flowers – Regular, perfect, complete. 1 to 1 1/2  inches broad, on lengthened flower stalks with pair of leaves at bass, terminal – two to five flowered. Sepals – 5 lapping, sharply pointed, often 3-nerved. Petals – 5, purplish pink, entire, woolly or bearded at base, thin, broad, overlapping one another. Stamens – 5 or 10, in two rows, anthers 10. Pistil – one, with 5 styles. Fruit – Slender, lengthened capsule pointed like crane’s bill, tipped with compound style, which in fruit is one or more inches long. Seed-bearing organs, pennantly attached to style, separating from base end curving upward at maturity when they burst open, sending forth pitted seeds far from parent plant. Habitat – Rich moist woodland, thickets, shady roadsides, open woods and fields. Newfoundland to Georgia, westward a thousand miles.

INTERESTING FACTS:  250 species found in temperate zones. May be propagated by seed or divisions of the root. Depends upon larger bees for fertilization.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Called also “astringent root” from use of its root-stock in medicine. Soil binder. Can be grown in ordinary garden soil.



May apple, Mandrake, Hog apple, Wild Lemon
Podophyllum paltatum

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial, long horizontal rootstock. Poisonous, medicinal. Stem – 1 to 1 1/2  feet high. Erect. Leaves – Solitary, nearly 1 foot across, 5 to 9 lobed, each lobe, 2 cleft. Dark green above, light green below. Leaves of flowering stem usually a pair, similar but smaller. Flowering Period – April to June. Flowers – White, solitary, strong-scented. 1 1/2  to 2 inches broad, on stout nodding stems 1/2  to 2 inches long, from fork between two leaves. Six sepals petal-like, soon falling. Petals six to nine, flat rounded. Stamens as many as petals or twice as many. One pistil with thick stigma. Fruit – Fleshy, yellowish, egg-shaped, many seeded, edible fruit. 1 1/2 to 2 inches long. Habitat – Shade loving, moist rich soil. West New England to Minn., south to Fla. And Texas.

INTERESTING FACTS: Occasionally self-fertilized without nectar. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Bees and bumblebees collect and transfer pollen from plant to plant. Plants serve as carpet cover for shaded areas, spreading roots hold soil.


Black-eyed Susan, Yellow or Ox-eye Daisy, Nigger-head, Golden Jerusalem, Purple Cone Flower, English Bull’s-eye, Brown Daisy or Betty, Brown-eyed Susan.

Rudbeckia hirta.

DESCRIPTION: Stem – 1 to 3 feet tall, usually unbranched, near the base stout, very rough, bristly, throughout. Leaves – Dull olive-green, thick, rough, sparingly toothed or entire. The lower ones, broader at tip, three-ribbed 2 to 7 inches long, 1/2 to 2 inches wide, on leaf stalks. The upper ones, oblong to lance-shaped, narrower that lower ones, attached directly to rigid stem, no stalks. Flowering Period – May to Sept. Flowers – Very showy 1 1/2 to 2 inches broad. Florets (small disk flowers), dark purplish-brown containing both stamens and pistils, forming cone-shaped center. Ray flowers, 10 to 20, deep golden yellow, sometimes orange or reddish at base, without stamens or pistils, forming cone-shaped center. Ray flowers, 10 to 20, deep golden yellow, sometimes orange or reddish at bass, without stamens or pistils, curling backward. Bracts (leaves at base of flower) hairy, spreading or curved back, much shorter than ray flowers. Chaff of dull brown, disk; hair at tip. Fruit – Seeds formed only by small flowers of central disk. Habitat – Dry, open sunny places. Will thrive in semi-shade over all North American plains and prairies of western states. Found throughout the east.


36-D
Illustrations

Wild Geranium
May Apple
Black-eyed Susan
Swamp Buttercup
Queen Anne’s Lace
Japanese Honeysuckle
Bloodroot


36-E
INTERESTING FACTS: Named after Prof. Rudbeck & Son, predecessors of Lannaeus at Upsol. Termed a troublesome weed. Rough with hair or bristles throughout, biennial or sometimes annual. Came to eastern shores from Europe and marched farther and farther west. Seeds shipped back in western hay and clover weed to start journey over again.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Increased by seeds, cuttings, or divisions. Aids in forming protective carpet over soil.

Swamp Buttercup
Ranunculus septentrionalis

DESCRIPTION: Root – Simply fibrous. Stem – Hollow, generally smooth, sometimes hairy, 1 to 2 feet high, branching. Often takes root at joints if lying on ground. Leaf – Large, with stem about 1 foot long, three-divided, divisions stalked and each 3-cleft and notched. Broadly wedge-shaped or ovate. Uppermost leaves long, narrow and toothless. Flowering Period – May to August. Flowers – Bright yellow, 1 to 1 1/4 inches broad, 5 petals broadly oval, stamens numberous. Fruit – Flat oval head, one seeded, tipped with sword-shaped beak when ripe. Habitat – Swamps, ditches and low, rich meadows. New Brunswick to Manitoba, south to Georgia and Kansas.

INTERESTING FACTS: Depends mainly upon bee-like flies and little bees for fertilization. Blooms only few flowers at a time, insuring pollination.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Prevents soil erosion in ditches.


Queen Anne’s Lace, Wild Carrot, Birds Nest
Daucus carota

DESCRIPTION: Root – Deep, fleshy, cone-shaped. Stem – 1 to 3 feet high, bristle-like slender plants. Leaves – Feather-like shape pinnately decompound leaflets, cleft, upper ones smaller and less fringy. Yellowish green, rough to touch. Flowering Period – June to September. Flowers – Small, white or pale yellow, cluster of umbels, central floret of each umbel often purple, that of each umbelet occasionally so. Five petals inserted on edge of calyx, inflexed, 2 lobed, 5 stamens. Bracts resembling calyx parted into long narrow lobes. Fruit – 1/6 inch long, oblong, flattened at end, carpel has 5 bristly ribs and 4 smaller ones bearing single row of prickles. Habitat – Fields and waste places, waysides, temperate regions. Common throughout our area. Naturalized from Europe.

INTERESTING FACTS: Strongly scented weed. Aged flower curls up resembling birds nest. Pernicious weed. Also called Parsnip, Devil’s plague. Rantipole.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Adds humus to soil when plowed under. Prevents erosion.


Japanese Honeysuckle
Laconicera japonica

DESCRIPTION: Stem – Climbing or trailing, hairy. Leaf – Short stemmed, ovate, or oblong, thickish, undivided, 1 to 3 inches long, dark green and smooth above, paler and slightly hairy beneath. Pointed at tip, rounded at base. Flowering Period – May to June. Flowers – Corolla white, pink or yellow, pairs of slender tubular, two-lipped petals, stemmed; leafy bracted; stamens and style projecting. Borne in leaf axis along sprays. Fruit – Black berries 1/4 to 1/3 inches in diameter. Habitat – Woods and thickets. N.Y. and Pa. to N.C., Fla., and W.Va.

INTERESTING FACTS: Naturalized from eastern Asia. Escaped from cultivation and established in woods and thickets. As plant vines, it follows course taken by hands of cloak. Leaves cling almost whole year.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Cross fertilized by long-tongued moth after dark. Used along highways to bind soil and for decorative purposes.


Bloodroot, Puccoon, Red Puccoon, Indian Plant
Sanguinaria canedensis

DESCRIPTION: Root – Stout, horizontal root stalk, 1/2 to 1 inch thick, several inches


36-F
Illustrations

Wild Columbune
Jack-in-the-Pulpit
Common Blue Violet
Canada Goldenrod
Virginia Bluebells
Jacob’s Ladder
Toothwort Pepper-root


36-G
long, densely clothed with thick fibrous roots, orange-red juice. Stem – Smooth, 6 to 14 inches tall, leafstalk 8 inches long, juice reddish. Leaves – Break through ground curled into cylinder enclosing budding flower, kidney-shaped, 5 to 9 deep lobes, slightly wavy margin, palmately veined. Flowering Period – April to May. Flowers – Pure white, rarely pinkish, fragile, 1 to 1 1/2 inches broad. Sepals – 2, soon falling. Petals – 8 to 16 oblong, spatula-shaped, brilliant, arranged in 2 or 3 rows. Stamens, numerous, yellow. Early, single deciduous. Fruit – Capsule-narrow, oblong, one-celled, two-valved, both ends pointed, about 1 inch long, with many light yellow-brown seeds. Habitat – Rich woods and borders, low hillsides, thickets and shaded roadsides. Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Nebraska.

INTERESTING FACTS: Broken stems and roots produce milky or yellowish sap. Petals expand flatly in morning, become erect toward late afternoon and close at evening. Sepals fall when flower opens. Belongs to the poppy family.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Stigma shrivels when pollen is ripe, so much receive pollen from other flowers. No nectar. Pollinated by bees and ants. Juice dropped on sugar used for coughs and colds. Can be cultivated, requires no shade. Roots bind soil.


Wild Columbine
Aquilegia Canadensis

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial. Stem – One to two feet high, erect and branching, soft-hairy or smooth. Leaves – Long stemmed, three-lobed more or less divided. Flowering Period – April to July. Flowers – Several to a stem, nodding. Red outside, yellow within, irregular, one to two inches long. Five petals narrowing into a funnel shape, united below by five sepals, between which straight spurs ascend. Numerous yellow stamens and five pistils. Fruit – An erect pod, each of five divisions tipped with long sharp beak. Habitat – Rocky places, rich woodland. Nova Scotia to Northwest Territory, southward to Gulf States, west to Rocky Mountains. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Native of America. Nearly double in size under cultivation. Only large bumblebees and humming birds can reach the nectar, as it is hid far back in each little spur.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Moths and butterflies, help to fertilize by carrying pollen. It helps to make and hold soil.


Jack-in-the-Pulpit—Indian Turnip
Arisaema triphyllum

DESCRIPTION: Root – Bulb-like; biting to tests. Stem – Slander, round, tender. 1 to 1 1/2 feet tall. Leaf – One or two nearly erect, triparted ovate, rounded or pointed at base. 3 to 8 inches long and 1 to 3 inches wide. Flowering Period – April to June. Flower – Large sheathing leaf or hood, green and purple striped, curving in a broad flap over the top of a club-shaped spike which  has small, greenish-yellow flowers clustered on lower part. Seed – Berry-like fruit, green until August, then turns scarlet. Berry dries up and a tiny seed is found in each of the lobes. Habitat – Most woodland ground, well shaded. Novia Scotia, westward to Minn. And south to Gulf of Mexico.

INTERESTING FACTS: Soon vanishes when fields are cultivated; called Indian Turnip because the Indians boiled the berries and bulbs for food. Cultivated in greenhouses.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Peppery bulb becomes edible after boiling. Often used as domestic remedy. Ground-carpet plant for woodlands.


Common Blue Violet, Meadow Violet, Hooded Violet
Viole papilonacea

DESCRIPTION: Stem – Smooth. Leaves – Leaf stalks – a little longer than flower stalk, 3 to 7 inches high, often sparingly hairy. Leaves – deep green, about 2/5 of an inch broad, all uncut, egg-shaped to heart or kidney-shaped, scallop toothed margin, somewhat coiled. Flowering Period – April to June. Flowers – Light purple to pale violet, rarely white with purple veins, sometimes wholly white. 3 lower petals –


36-H
Illustrations

Canada Thistle
Marsh Marigold
Phlox Sweet William
Oxeye Daisy
Bluet
Wind Flower Snowdrop
Wild Rose


36-I
White or greenish yellow at base, 2 lateral ones (above) – fringed and bearded at throat, spur petal often narrow and boat-shaped, usually smooth. Outer sepals, long, narrow, pointed with broadest part at base, margin rarely fringed with fine hairs. Open flowers fertilized chiefly by bumblebees. Also closed flowers, small, not easily seen, egg-shaped, non-opening, self pollinating, on horizontal flower stalk usually underground but lengthened and erect when capsules ripen. Fruit – Capsules – pillow-shaped or cylindric, green or dark purple, 10 to 15 m.m., small. Seeds – dark brown, tiny, 2 m.m. Habitat –Moist soil of meadows and groves, frequently about dwellings. Low ground, especially marshes, flower stalks growing longer than leaf stalks and flowers much larger. Massechusetts to Minnesota and southwest. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Most common violet.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Protective soil carpet and soil binder.


Canada Goldenrod
Solidago canadensis

DESCRIPTION: Root – Underground spreading rootstalk, perennial. Stem – Slender, willowy and strong, fibrous. Finely hairy above. 1 to 8 feet high. Usually several from same rootstalk. Leaves – Thin, lance-shaped, 2 to 7 inches long, dull olive green, sharply toothed, triple ribbed, rough above, slightly woolly beneath, long pointed tip and tapering at base. Lower leaves stemmed. Flowering Period – August to October. Flowers – Small golden-yellow, 1/8 inch or less high, arranged on upper side of long spreading branches, forming plume-like clusters. Each head contains 5 to 15 petals or rays, bracts, thin, narrow and pointed, almost straw colored. Center florets contain both stamens and pistils. Fruit – Tipped with fine feathery hairs. Habitat – Hillsides or thickets, banks or streams, along roadsides and fences. Northward to Saskachewan.

INTERESTING FACTS: About 85 species in U.S. Less abundant west of Rocky Mountains. In days of Queen Elizabeth was used for healing wounds. Used for forage in some places. Sheep eat some species. State emblem of Alabama, Kentucky and Nebraska. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Nectar attracts insects, they in turn carry pollen. Birds feed upon seed during winter months. Prevents erosion on hillsides and banks, protective cover for wild life.


Virginia Bluebell, Virginia Cowslip, Virginia Lungwort, Tree of Smooth Lungwort
Mertensia virginica

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial, smooth, stout. Stem – Very smooth, pale, erect, somewhat branched, 8 to 24 inches tall. Leaves – Deep green, often having transparent dots, strongly veined, entire, large, alternate. Upper ones – seated on stem, egg-shaped pointed, 2 to 5 inches long. Lower ones – very large, egg-shaped with broad end toward tip, tapering toward base into long leaf stalks. Flowering Period – March to May. Flowers – Pinkish in bud, afterward purplish-blue, fading to light blue, rarely white, about 1 inch long, hanging on slender stalks in showy, loose, terminal clusters, the outer stalks being longer than those nearer the axis or stem. Calyx—5 lobed oblong to lance-shaped, blunt. Corolla—trumpet-shaped with slender tube and 5 lobes, hairy at base, not crested in throat. Stamens—5, attached to inside of corolla tube. 1 pistil, ovary—4 lobed, style-uniform. Fruit – 4 erect nutlets, more or less wrinkled, dull, roughish. Habitat – Alluvial ground, low meadows, and along streams, well sheltered places, as it yellows when other foliage comes out. Southern Canada to S. Carolina and Kansas, west to Nebraska. Most abundant in Middle West.

INTERESTING FACTS: Named for Franz Karl Martens, a German botanist.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Frequently cultivated. May be propagated by seed if sowed as soon as ripe. Protective cover plant for soil, while its roots serve as soil binder.


Jacob’s Ladder – Greek Valeroan
Polemonium reptans


36-J
Illustrations

Hepatica Liverwort
Trillium Wake Robin
Yellow Adder’s Tongue
Dogtooth Violet
Dutchman’s Breeches
Spring Beauty
White Vervain 
Wild Verbena
 Purple-Stemmed Aster


36-K
Leaves – Compound, alternately growing leaves formed of 5 – 15 ovate lance-shaped leaflets; uppermost leaves generally simple; all toothless. Flowering Period – April to May. Flowers – About 1/2 inch long, light blue violet, rarely white, in loose clusters and nodding blue-bell like shape. Fruit – Capsule, about 3 seeds in each. Habitat – In thin woods; New York, south to Georgia, west to Minnesota & Missouri.

INTERESTING FACTS: Easy prey to snails, especially in winter when they attack rootstalks. Cross-fertilized by butterflies and bumblebees.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Soil binder.


Toothwort, or Pepper-root
Dentaria dyphylla

DESCRIPTION: Root – Long, wrinkled and toothed. Edible, possessing a flavor like watercress. Stem – 8 to 13 inches high; stout, glabrous, from perennial notched but continuous rootstock. Leaves – Basal, long-stemmed, three lobed, toothed; the two upper stem leaves similar and opposite; all smooth. Flowering Period – Late April and May. Flowers – White – have four petals and yellow stamens; (usually 6) found in a small terminal cluster. Fruit – Flat, lance-shaped pods, one inch long. Habitat – In rich woodlands and damp meadows. Maine, south to South Carolina, west to Minn.

INTERESTING FACTS: Roots used for medicinal purposes. Flowers produce honey for bees.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Soil binder.


Canada Thistle, Creeping Thistle
Cirsium arvense

DESCRIPTION: Root – Extensively creeping, perennial. Stem – Striate, 1 to 3 feet high branched above. Leaves – Dull gray-green, whitish-ribbed, lance-like, smooth, slightly woolly beneath, with very prickly, ruffed lobes. Flowering Period – July to Sept. Flowers – Small (7/8 inches broad) lilac, pale magenta and sometimes white, very densely clustered, sweet scented and rich in honey. Both staminate and pistillate. Fruit – Numerous small winged seeds in solitary head blown far and wide. Habitat – Pastures, fields, and roadsides from Newfoundland to Virginia.

INTERESTING FACTS: Pernicious weed. Naturalized from Europe. Very difficult to eradicate. Fertilized by bumblebees and butterflies.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Spreads so rapidly it chokes out our beneficial plants.


Marsh Marigold
Caltha palustris

DESCRIPTION: Roots – Perennial, thick yellow rootstock. Stem – Stout, glabrous, hollow, erect or ascending 1 to 2 feet high – branching. Leaves – Deep green, round or kidney-shaped obscurely blunt – toothed. Flowering Period – April to May. Flowers – Bright yellow with 5-9 petallike sepals, numerous stamens, resembling buttercups. Fruit – 3 to 12 follicles (compartments) slightly curved outward many seeded. Habitat – Common in marshes and damp meadows.

INTERESTING FACTS: The classical name Catha means cup, and palus a marsh – Marsh cup. Also called cowslip, meadow – buttercup, cow-lily. Flowers are chiefly fertilized by the beautiful yellow flies (Syrphidae)

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Used before flowering in spring as a vegetable.


Phlox – Sweet William
Phlox maculate

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial rootstock. Stem – Slender, erect, simple or branched above, or downy puberulent, usually flecked with purple, 1 1/2 to 3 feet high. Leaves – Lanceolate, deep green without teeth and stem. Flowering Period – June to August. Flowers – Pale crimson-pink to purple and white. Generally have notched lobes, slightly fragrant and gathered in loose clusters. Fruit – Usually only 1 seed in each cavity of the capsule. Habitat – In moist woods and along streams. Connecticut


36-L
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO
Illustrations

Solidago canadensis. Rock Golden-rod
Solidago junces. Early Golden-rod
Solidago rugosa. Wrinkle-leaved or Pyramid Golden-rod


36-M
To Florida, Ohio, Minnesota, and Mississippi.

INTERESTING FACTS: Occasionly escapes from garden. Name Phlox is from the Greek word meaning flame. Fertilized by butterflies and bumblebees.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: We enjoy its fragrance and beauty. Protective cover plant.


Ox-eye Daisy, White Weed
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial. Stem – Glabrous or sparingly hairy, simple or little branched, 1 to 3 feet high, often tufted, the branches nearly erect. Leaves – Dark green, obovate, oblong or spatulate shaped and ornamentally lobed, Flowering Period – June to September. Flowers – Golden yellow disc, depressed in the centre, formed of perfect flowers; the white rays are pistillate. Fruit – Many needle shaped seeds. Habitat – In pastures, meadows and waste places. Very common throughout our area as a weed, but less abundant in the south and west.

INTERESTING FACTS: Name comes from Greek meaning golden flower. Naturalized from Europe. Native of Asia also. Commonest of all common weeds often called “Farmers Curse.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Very decorative – favorite with children and artists. A pest to farmers as it spreads rapidly and chokes out crops.


Bluet – Quaker Ladies, Innocence.
Houstonia coerulea

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial, slender rootstocks forming dense tufts. Stem – Slender, threadlike 3 inches to 6 inches high. Leaves – Tiny light green root-leaves and small opposite leaflets set sparingly on stem. Flowering Period – April to July. Flowers – Four-lobed corolla about 1/2 inch in diameter white or pale violet, centre golden yellow. Solitary on stem. Fruit – Seed, few or several in each concave cavity. Habitat – In moist grassy places or sandy waysides from Maine to Ga., west to Michigan.

INTERESTING FACTS: Communistic in manner of growth and frequently covering large spaces with its bloom. Cross fertilized by the bees and smaller butterlies.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Very good soil binders (Especially in sandy soils.)


Wind Flower, Snowdrop, Wood-flower
Anemone quinquefolia

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial – rootstock tuberous and horizontal. Stem – 4 inches to 9 inches high, simple and nearly glabrous. Leaves – Deep green with five divisions. Long petioled appearing later than the flowering stem. Flowering Period – April to June. Flowers – Solitary about 1 inch across 4 to 9 petallike sepals of frail white or magenta tinge. Fruit – Oblong, tipped with hooked styles. Habitat – Common on the borders of woods. Maine, south to Georgia and west to the Rocky Mts. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Name derived from the Greek, meaning a flower shaken by the winds. Cross fertilized by the early bees and beelike flies.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It is very delicate and beautiful. Protective cover plant.


Wild Rose, Smooth Rose – Meadow Rose
Rosa blanda

DESCRIPTION: Root – Generally have subterranean rootstocks. Stem – Rather short (2 to 4 feet high) usually smooth or with a few straight slender prickles on the stem. Leaves – 5 to 7, blunt or round tipped, short-stalked, usually pale beneath; simply toothed. Flowering Period – June to July. Flowers – Pink, nearly three inches broad, either solitary or in small clusters. Fruit – Either globular or pear-shaped with persisting sopals. Habitat – In moist rocky places, Newfoundland to Vermont, and northern New Jersey, west to Illinois and Great Lake Region.

INTERESTING FACTS: Flowers rich in pollen and honey.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It’s fragrance and beauty add charm to the wayside.



36-N
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO
(Illustrations)
Euthamia graminifolia. Bushy, Fragrant
or Flat-topped Golden-rod (In moist
soil) July to September

Solidago flexicaulis. Zig-zag or Broad-leaved Golden-rod. (In rich woods)
July to September



36-O
Protects and holds soil.


Hepatica. Liverwort
Hepatica triloba

DESCRIPTION:  Root – Fibrous. Stem – Three to six inches, hairy. Leaves – Three ovate or rounded lobes, on long stems arising directly from the roots, hairy, leathery, 2 to 2 1/2 inches broad, olive green, sometimes mottled with, or entirely reddish purple. Rusty at blooming time; often spreading on the ground. Flowering Period – March to May. Earliest spring flower. Flowers – Six to twelve petallike sepals varying in color from lilac white, to pale purple, blue or nearly white. One-half to one inch broad, sepals oval or bolong, longer than stamens. Three small leaves directly under flower, might be mistaken for calyx. Fruit – Usually as many seeds as pistils. Oblong, pointed. Habitat – Half hidden among decaying leaves of woodland, light soil on hillside. Nova Scotia to northern Florida, west to Iowa and Missouri, and to Alaska.

INTERESTING FACTS: Often grown in large tufts. If winter is unreasonably warm, it blooms in midwinter.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Helps hold soil and moisture on hillsides and slopes.


Trillium--Wake-Robin--Birthroot
Trillium grandiflorum

DESCRIPTION: Root –Perennial, tuber-like root stalk. Stem – Stout, single, 8 to 18 inches high. Leaves – Three, light green, ovate, coming to sharp point. Grow in circle around stem. Flowering Period – May to June. Flowers – Three sepals, pointed and spreading. Three large petals spreading and curved cracefully backwards, 1 1/2 to 2 inches long; waxy-white at first, as they grow older they turn pink. Long anthers. Style 3 or 4 inches long, erect. Seed – Black; globe shaped, 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter. Six cells, several seeds to each cell. Black when ripe. Habitat – Rich moist woods and thickets. Quebec to Florida and west to Minn. And Mo.

INTERESTING FACTS: Cultivated by florists. Sometimes petals change to leaves or parts of flower increase in number.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Cover for soil. Beautiful.


Yellow Adder’s-Tongue--Dogtooth Violet
Erythronium amoricanum

DESCRIPTION: Root – Deeply buried tuber-like bulb. Propagates by offshoots. Stem – 6 to 12 inches, rising between 2 leaves. Leaves – Two unequal, grayish-green, mottled, oblong. 3 to 8 inches long; nearly stemless and grow from root. Flowering Period – March to May. Flowers – Single, shaped of 6 petallike parts, spreading at tips. Dark spotted within. 6 stamens, club-shaped style. Seed – Curved and pointed at both ends. Habitat – Moist woods and thickets, beside brooks. Nova Scotia to Fla., westward to Miss. River. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Nearly closes at night. Can fertilize itself. Is often called, Trout Lily and Scrofula root.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Cover for soil, helping it to hold moisture.


Dutchman’s Breeches, Whitehearts, Ear-drops
Dicentra cucullaria

DESCRIPTION: Root – Grain-like tubers form a scaly bulb. Stem – Smooth, 5 to 10 inches high. Leaf – Feathery, three parted, finely cut, grayish green, paler beneath, on stem direct from base. Flowering Period – April and May. Flower – Nodding, white, tipped with creamy yellow, two petals joined in pairs forming a double, two-spurred, heart-shaped sack. Two smaller inner petals protect the six stamens that are slightly extended. Style slender with a two-lobed stigma. Seed – 10 to 20 in pod. Habitat – Rich, rocky woods or slopes. Nova Scotia to Carolinas, west to Nebraska.



36-P
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO

Euthamia tenuifolia
Greem, Slender, Fragrant Quobsqua
Weed (In dry sandy soil)
August to October

Solidago cassia.
Blue-stemmed or 
Wreath Golden-rod. (In woods or
Thickets) August to October.



36-Q
INTERESTING FACTS: Requires very little light and can stand the drip of the trees. Western plants differ in having a shorter and rounded spur. Name derived from likeness to balloon-legged trousers, also the name from the Greek, meaning twice-spurred.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Serves as carpet cover for rocky slopes and woodlands.


Spring Beauty
Claytonia virginica

DESCRIPTION: Root – Small – Small, deep tuberous perennial. Stem – Weak, slender, 6 to 12 inches long, sometimes lying on ground. Leaf – Opposite, smooth and somewhat fleshy narrowing at base. Flowering Period – March to May. Flowers – Small white, veined with pink or all pink with veinings of deeper shade. Slender stems, 2 oval sepals, 5 petals notched, slightly united at yellowish base. 5 stamens. Style 3 cleft. Several on long axis forming loose cluster. Habitat – Moist woods, open groves, low meadows. Nova Scotia and westward, and south to Georgia and Texas.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of earliest spring flowers. Stigma splits in three parts after open awhile, curving backwards with the pollen-catching part uppermost. Stamens develop before the stigma is mature, making cross-fertilization a certainty.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Serves as carpet cover in woodlands.


White Vervain, Wild Verbena
Verbena urticifolia

DESCRIPTION: Root – Perennial. Stem – 4 sided, slender, erect, usually hairy; 3 to 5 feet high. Leaf – Coarsely toothed, deep green, oval or oblong-ovate, stemmed, uppermost attached directly by base. Basal leaves 3 cleft, acute, with rounded base. 2 to 5 inches long. Flowering Period – June to September. Flowers – On numerous threadlike spikes, erect or spreading, branches, 4 to 6 inches long. Bracts ovate, shorter than calyx; petals small and white, blue or purple. Fruit – Oblong, scattered, 1/12 inches high. Habitat – In fields, waste lands, thickets, roadsides. New Brunswick to S. Dakota, Kansas, Florida, Texas.

INTERESTING FACTS: Cross-pollination with three species of group.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Prevents soil erosion in fields and roadsides; protection for wild life.


Purple-Stemmed Aster, Red-stalk Aster
Astor punicous

DESCRIPTION: Stem – Usually stout, reddish more or less branched above, with loosely branched flower cluster at top. Bristly to smooth; 3 to 8 feet high. Leaves – Lance shaped to oblong, tapering to slender point; clasping stem by a broad or narrow base; sparingly and coarsely toothed, rough above, usually hairy below on midrib. 3 to 6 inches long. Flowering Period – July to November. Flowers – Numerous branching clusters, showy, each flower about size of silver quarter; 20 to 40 rays; white, light violet or lilac purple; tubular florets yellow. Fruit – One-seeded capsule, covered with soft hair. Habitat – Low thickets, swamps. Newfoundland to Ontario, Manitoba, Minn., south to Georgia and Tennessee.

INTERESTING FACTS: Blooming about the time of goldenrod – making a gorgeous scenic effect of purple and gold.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Prevents erosion, forms soil, protects wild life, and holds moisture


36-R
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO
(Illustrations)

Solidago ulmifolia
Elm leaved Golden-rod
(In woods) July – September

Solidago ohioensia
Ohio Golden-rod
(In moist soils)
August – September

Solidago petula
Rough leaved or Spreading Golden-rod
(In swamps) 
August – October

Solidago hispida
Hairy Golden-rod
(In dry soil)
August – October

Solidago rigidiuscula
Slender showy Golden-rod
(In dry soil, mostly on prairies)
August – October



36-S
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO
(Illustrations)

Solidago squarrosa
Stout Ragged Golden-rod
(In rocky soil)
August to October

Solidago neglecta
Swamp Golden-rod 
(in swamps and bogs)
Aug.  – Sept.

Solidago uliginose.
Bog or Swamp Golden-rod
(In swamps and bogs )
Aug. – Sept.

Solidago riddellii (moist)
Golden-rod.
(On moist prairies)
Aug. – Sept.

Left:
Solidago arguta.
Cut-leaved Golden-rod.
(In rich woods)
July – October.

Right:
Solidago serotina
Late Golden-rod
(In moist soils)
Aug. – Oct.



36-T
SPECIES OF GOLDEN-ROD FOUND IN OHIO
(Illustions)

Solidago nemoralis. 
Dwarf Golden-rod
Gray Field Golden-rod 
(In dry soil)
July to November.

Solidago bicolor.
White or Pale Golden-rod.
(In dry soil)
July to September.



37
FLOWERS

Evening Primrose.
Oenothera biennis. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Root – Deep taproot. Stem – It is erect, wandlike or branched. It is soft, hairy, and leafy throughout. Grows from 1-6 feet in height. Leaves – Are alternate, lance, lance-shaped and sometimes broad. They are slightly toothed or toothless. Have no leaf stalks. They are light green in color. Flowers – Are large, showy, and pure yellow. They are lemon scented. From 1-2 inches in width. Usually open just before sundown, and fade in the strong sunlight of the following day. The pollen is loosely connected by cobwebby threads. Flowering period – July and August. Fruit – Small, reddish brown seeds in seed capsules. Are often one inch in length. When ripe they split at the top into four sections and scatter the seeds.

HABITAT: It grows in fields, meadows, in waste places, and along the roadsides. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: When growing on open plains county, this plant becomes a tumbleweed since the plants break loose at the root on maturity and tumble about in the wind. The sudden opening of the flower in the twilight hour is interesting and remarkable. It is a night blooming plant. It is also cultivated. Leaves are edible.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Is a common seed impurity of grass and clover seeds. Most familiar and abundant weed. Honeybees, bumblebees, and moths, especially the Isabella Tiger Moth visit this plant. It is a biennial.


Wild Ginger. Asarum canadense. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Plant – 6-12 inches high. Root – Has a thick creeping rootstock, which has an aromatic flavor similar to the spice ginger. Leaves – Grow in pairs. Are long stemmed, and heart-shaped. Are deep green, veiny, soft and woolly. The stems are hairy. Flowers – Brown purple in color, with yellowish spots. One inch in width. Often buried in leaves on the ground. One flower, bell shaped, and slender stalked. Flowering period – April and May. Fruit – A rather fleshy roundlike capsule, with many plump seeds. When ripe the pod bursts and sets free the seed.

HABITAT: Grows in rich, moist woodlands, on hillsides, and along roadsides. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Country children call it “little brown jug.” It is also called “Canada snake root.” It is so close to the ground that it is often visited by fungus gnats and the early flesh flies. These have much to do with pollination of the plant. Possible food for some animals, but very few, because of the bitter juices of the leaves and roots, which, bit like ginger. The spice ginger and wild ginger are not related. It is native to America.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: In landscape gardening, it is useful for covering bare places in borders or groves. It is easily transplanted to rich, moist soil. The rootstock is collected in the fall and used in medicine.


Willow Herb. Epiloboumn  coloratum. Muhb.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Roots – They are large, and fleshy. Stem – It is branching and is covered with fine hairs, often reddish. Grows from one to three feet in height. Leaves – They are lance shaped, long, and willowy. They are toothed, but not noticeable. Are short stemmed, and yellow green in color, often tinged with red. Flowers – They are tiny and pale lilac. Sometimes nodding, but after being picked show nodding blossoms. Are about an inch in width. Flowering period – July and August sometimes September. Fruit – Seed pod is green, very long and slender. They are dark brown in color. They have a hairy plume, pale at first, later a cinnamon brown, which helps the wind in distributing them.

HABITAT: Grows in dry soil, fields, along roadsides, especially burned over areas.  Also in moist places. In Ohio, it is found in Portage, Erie, Ottawa, and Clark counties. 

INTERESTING FACTS: It is sometimes called “fireweed” because it is the first growth to be found on burned over areas. The fine tufts of hair on the seeds aids them in becoming widely and rapidly distributed. Used as substitutes for tea, and also has been used in medicine.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Beekeepers value the willow herb because the flowers yield an abundance of nectar and pollen. It is first to appear after forest fires and covers the unsightly wastelands. It sometimes becomes troublesome in pastures.



38

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Stem – Is erect, rigid, sometimes smooth throughout, and sometimes hairy at the base. It is bright green in color. Grows from 2-7 feet in height. Leaves – They are dandelionlike. Oblong, lance shaped have finely toothed margins. There are spiny bristles along the underside of the midrib. The lower leaves are sometimes 10 inches long and 3 inches wide. The upper leaves are much smaller. Flowers – Are pale yellow in color. Occur in flowerlike clusters. Many flower heads in a cluster. Have feathery appearance of a ripe dandelion. Flowering period – June to November. Fruit – Seeds form in large numbers. They are plumed and can be carried great distances by the wind.

HABITAT: Grows in fields and waste places. General and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is called the “compass plant” because of the arrangement of the leaves so the edges point north and south. Milky juice of plant sometimes taints dairy products when grazed by cattle. Grazing animals are fond of the young plant. The leaves are used in making medicine. Leaves often used as “greens.” Native of Europe.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: One plant produces from 8000-240,000 seeds. It is a serious pest of the Ohio River Valley and middle west. It occurs, practically, in all crops. It is an annual.

Card Teasel. Dipsacus sylvestris. Huds.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Roots – Main taproot with finer side roots. Stem – Stour, branched, leafy, and with a prickly surface. Grows from three to six feet in height. Leaves – They are opposite narrowly oblong or lance shaped, pointed at both ends, and stalkless, margins and surfaces are prickly. Bristles along the stout midrib. Rosettes are well formed by the first fall. Flowers – Are small and packed in dense egg-shaped heads 3-4 inches in length. Grow singly on the ends of footstalks. The flowers are set among stiffly pointed, slender scales. Are from purple to lilac in color. Middle flowers bloom first. Flowering period – From July through October. Fruit – Seeds are four sided, oblong with two grooves on each face. One seed per flowere but many from each head. Brown when ripe.

HABITAT: Along roadsides and in waste places. It is general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is a native of southern Europe. Contains a disagreeable juice. Sometimes called the “card thistle” and “gypsy combs.” One of the members of this species is used in carding wool. Manufactures have found that no invention can equal the natural teasel head for raising nap on woolen cloth.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Not a troublesome plant. Helps fill in waste places. This plant is a biennial and can be controlled by mowing. “Fuller’s teasel” supposed to have originated from this plant.


Rough Hawkwood. Hieracium scabrum. Mx.

DESCRIPTION. Plant – Stem – Is simple, stout, stiff, and hairy. It grows from 1-3 feet in height. Leaves – They are rought – hairy, oblong, and very blunt. They are almost toothless. Are a light dull green in color. They are stalkeless. Flowers – There are several small heads each held with a hairy green cup. All are in a terminal flower cluster. They are yellow in color. The flower cluster is irregular and angular in its branching. Flowering period – From June to September. Fruit – Small seeds, cyclindrical ridged lengthwise, and pointed at one end. At the opposite end is a short brush of fine, white bristles. Black in color.

HABITAT: Grows on poor soil in dry woods, rich pastures, and hay fields. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Brought over from Europe not so long ago, and has made itself at home in America. Belongs to a family of compound flower heads. The seeds are carried by the wind and are easily scattered. New plants are constantly formed from “runners” that are sent out in all directions like the strawberry plant.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Troublesome woods especially in grasslands. Forty species are found in the United States. Cattle and goats help destroy this weed by eating it. Very numerous. Mow hawkweed twice a year in June and August to prevent seed formation. Cultivation will entirely destroy hawkweeds.



39
Violet Wood Sorrel. Oxalis violacea. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Root – Browning scaly bulb. Stem – From 4-8 inches in height. Light green in color. Leaf stems delicate. Leaves – About one inch wide. Compound leaf made up of three heart shaped or cloverlike leaflets. With a prominent midrib. On the end of long, slender leaf stems or petioles. Light green in color. Droop and fold together after nightfall. Flowers – Borne on long slender, flower stalks. There are from 3-6, sometimes more, blossoms. They are rose purple, sometimes white in color. Produces two kinds of flowers, but on different plants. Both perfect and alike, except in arrangement of stamens and pistil. Flowering period – May and June. Fruit – A five-celled capsule, which contains tiny seeds. Before seeds are ripe, it is watery and the juice is sour.

HABITAT: Grows on rocky, sandy ground, and in thin woods. It is rather general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: The wood sorrel is cultivated as a house plant in the north. It is a “restless” plant. Very sensitive to light. Plant juices very sour. Oxalic acid is obtained from this plant and also the “white wood sorrel”. Bear cleistogamous flowers at its base – they are flowers that fertilize themselves in the bud and never open. Used as flower bed borders.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Oxalic acid that is obtained from this plant is used in dyeing. It is a cleaning and leaching agent. Will clean metallic utensils, remove ink and rust stains. A perennial.


Jewel Weed or Spotted Tough-me-not.
Impatiens biflora. Walt.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Stem – Smooth, hollow, ribbed, and angular. Translucent, juicy. Grows from 2-5 feet in height. Stout but fragile and branching; usually reddish. Leaves – Have very delicate appearance. Ovate thin, round toothed, alternate on slender leaf stalks. Dull green above, whitish green beneath, giving silvery appearance.
Flowers – Small, Sometimes deeply freckled with reddish brown spots over a deep gold yellow. Sometimes a pale buff yellow, scarecely spotted. The flower sack is deep and longer than broad; ends with an incurved spur, nearly one-half or one-third the length of pouch. Two of these singular flowers droop from the end of each threadlike stalk. One blooms at a time. Flowering period – From July to September. Fruit – Seeds in a slender seed pod. Pod has five valves. When ripe, the valves uncoil suddenly, throwing the seeds several feet.

HABITAT: Needs abundant moisture. Grows along streams, ponds, and marshes. In Ohio, it is general.

INTERESTING FACTS: There are two kinds of flowers formed, the bright, colored one, attractive to insects for cross-pollination and the other much smaller, which is self-fertilized in the bud. Petals never expand, pushed off by growing pod. Flowers wilt quickly when picked. Often called “Silver-leaf.” Other names – Wild Balsam,” and “Snap Weed,” and the same as the “Pale Jewel Weed.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Visited by Hummingbird, Honeybee, Bumblebee, Butterflies and other bees for nectar. These pollinate the plant.


Flowering Spurge. Euphorbia corollata. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant – Stem – Five branched clusters above and simple below. It is often brightly spotted. Grows from 1-3 feet in height. Leaves – Are long, lance shaped or oblong, and entire. The lower ones are alternate and the upper ones are whorled. Flowers – Are small, white and borne in forked, long stalked umbrellalike clusters enclosed in green bracts. The true flowers are very small within a white cup shaped cluster. Flowering period – From April to October. Fruit – Three lobed fruits that split open when ripe and throw seeds some distances.

HABITAT: Grows in dry soil, sandy or gravelly. It is general and abundant in Ohio. 

INTERESTING FACTS: An ordinary weed, but is related to the brilliant Poinsettia and also the castor-oil plant and the purplish ipecac spurge, and old fashioned emetic. The snow-on-the-mountain belongs to this species and has been used for branding cattle in Texas. Some of the spurges cause blistering of the legs of animals walking through patches of the plants and may injure the eyes and nose. The milky juice will blister the human skin.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Depends upon flies to transfer the pollen from the stamin-



40
Flowering Spurge. (Continued)
ate to the pistillate flowers. This weed is abundant. In some species the milky juice is poisonous when taken internally. It is also bitter. Persistent cultivation will control it.


Foxglove beard tongue. Penstemon digitalis (sweet). Nutt.

DESCRIPTION: PlantL Stem – Reddish in color. Smooth, except for the sticky, hairy top of the stem. Grows from 2-5 feet in height. Leaves – Light green in color. Ovate lance shaped, lower leaves longer and wider. Leaves at base of the plant in a rosette the first year. As flower stalks grow, the leaves on the stem gradually become smaller as they near the top. Alternate. Flowers – Grow on the top of the stem a space 14 inches in length. They are large and showy, with blossoms tinged with purple. The flower cup or corolla abruptly inflated. Bell-shaped, and two inches long. Flowering period – From May to July. Fruit – Two-celled capsule containing many seeds.

HABITAT: Grows in dry, sandy soil, along roadsides, fence rows on borders of timber land and in small cleared places. It is rather general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: This plant belong to the Figwort family. It is pollinated by small bees, butterflies, who come for the nectar. The wasp will nip small holes in tube where the nectar is stored. Pentestemon means 5 stamens which gives the flower its scientific name. Sometimes called “finger flower.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: From this plant is obtained a powerful drug from its dried leaves. Used in the treatment of certain kinds of heart trouble. Digitalis overcomes muscular weakness of the heart. Must be used as prescribed by a physician. Made into power and pills. It is used for infusion, and as a tincture.


Moth Mullein. Verbascum blattaria. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – It is smooth, slender, erect simple, and is from 2-5 feet in height. Leaves – Are thin light green, glossy, mostly oblong with deeply cut, notched, and toothed margins. The upper leaves are lance shaped and stalkless. Alternate. Flowers – Are set on slender stalks. They have 5 yellow or white petals, tinged on the back with lavender. The slender flower spike is from one to two feet in height, and is a bit woolly. Flowers open 2-3 at a time. Flowering period – From June to September. Fruit – A two-called and many seeded, round capsule. Turn brown when ripe.

HABITAT: Grows in pastures, dry open wastelands, and along roadsides. It is general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: It belongs to a bitter juiced plant family, some members are narcotic poisonous. It is cross-pollinated by moths, bees, and butterflies. Related to the common, or wooly mullein. New England women used to pack this plant among woolen garments in summer to keep out the clothes moths. Once thought this plant repelled the cockroach, hence the name “blattaria” – from “blatta” – name of the insect. Belongs to the “Figwort family.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: In winter, the brown seed capsules are food for birds. Common seed impurity of timothy, grass, and clover seeds. Sixty-thousand seeds per plant. It is a biennial. Young plants easily destroyed with a hoe.


Shepherds purse. Bursa bursa pastoris. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – It grows from a deep root. Is from 8-18 inches in height. Branching. Leaves – The basal leaves are deeply out, and form a rosette. The stem-leaves are small lance shaped and distinctly toothed and are scattered along the stem. Alternate, and stalkless. Flowers – Are very small with four little white petals; borne on a small terminal cluster. As stem grows flowers continue to blossom. Flowering period – From April to September. Fruit – Small, wedge-shaped seed cases. They are also flat. Pods are purselike.

HABITAT: Grows along roadsides near dwellings, on wastelands and also cultivated ground. It is general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Native of Europe. It is related to the Sweet Alyssum, a garden border plant. Sometimes called “Capsella bursa pastoris,” meaning “shepherds little purse.” Belongs to the mustard family. Most common weed and is found the world over. Takes its name from the shape of the seed pods – purselike. Rosettes of leaves form in the fall. Clustered flowers attract insects, especially flies, that transfer the



41
Shepherds purse. (Continued)

Pollen from plant to plant.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: This plant carries a number of injurious fungi over winter. Mildew if turnips and cabbages; the white rust and club-root of cabbages. Infests all crops from orchards to grasslands. One plant produces fifty thousand seeds per season. Seed impurity of timothy. Taints dairy products.


Fire Pink or Virginia Catchfly. Silene virginica. L

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – It is erect, slender, sticky and hairy. Grows from 1-2 feet in height with branches at tip. Leaves – Are thin. Those of the base and lower part of the stem are spatulate and from 3-5 inches long. Taper into a winged petiole. The upper ones are oblong to lance shaped, and attached directly to the stem. They are rather hairy. Flowers – In a loosely, branching flower cluster. From a deep crimson to scarlet in color. Are one and one-half inches broad. On slender flower stems from one-half inch to two inches in length. Have 5 oblong petals that are two claft. The calyx or flower cup is sticky and is from 9-12 inches in length. Also tubelike and bellshaped. Its margin is of thin quality. Flowering period – From May to September. Fruit – A pod containing seeds.

HABITAT: Grows in dry, open woodlands. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Butterflies and humming birds come to this flower to sip the nectar. Its brilliant color attracts these insects. Ants and other insects that also want the nectar have started to crawl up the stem, only to die when caught in the stickiness of it. The stickiness of the stem resembles sticky fly paper.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Should be cultivated because it helps control ants and attracts flies, holds and kills those that alight.


Dutch Weed. (Lesser). Lemna minor. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Root – Has only one root, which often grows very long. Hanging root attached to each frond or leaf and is hairlike in appearance. Stem – They are called “fronds”. They are round in form. Do not have foliage. These “fronds” are thick and flat. They vary in size from a small pinhead to about one-fourth of an inch across. Provided with stomata or very tiny openings in contact with internal air cavities. Fronds are rather thick and 3 nerved and not easily seen. Yellowish green in color. Sometimes are reddish or purplish tinged. Flowers – Staminate and pistillate flowers are on the same plant. Flowering period – In the summer. Fruit – One to seven seeded egg shaped pod. Seed is oblong and egg shaped and deeply and unequally 12-15 ribbed. Seed has a very noticeable scar.

HABITAT: In quiet waters – ponds, lakes, and stagnant waters. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: This plant multiplies by sending out other fronds or disks from the edges of the parent frond. These soon separate from the mother plant and start for themselves. Also multiplies by autumnal fronds in form of tiny bulblets, which sink to the bottom of the water and rise in the spring to vegetate.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for ducks and other aquatic birds. Floats on nearly all natural ponds in America, forming a green scum on surface.


Hornwort or Hornweed. Ceratophyllum demersum. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant:  Root – Within the seed of this plant is the beginning of a root which never develops. Stem – Are floating branches two foot in length. Its length is usually according to the depth of the water. Leaves – Are forked three times and are borne in whorls on the floating branches. They are stiff and spiny tipped and are long, narrow, linelike in form. Flowers – The male and female flowers are borne at the base of the leaves. Never rise above the water, but the stamens of the male flowers break and float to the surface of the water. In floating, shed their pollen down upon the female flowers. Flowering period – June, August, and September. Fruit – When ripe it is oval shaped. Two or three inches in length with a straight or curved spinelike beak from 2-4 inches long. Smooth and spurless sometimes with a long basal spur on each side, sometimes with narrowly winged spiny margins or broadly winged without spines. HABITAT: Found in ponds and slow streams. It is general in Ohio. INTERESTING FACTS: Seeds germinate on the bottom of the pond and when young plants and about 3 inches long, float up to surface of water and remain.



42
FORESTS SERVE MANY PURPOSES

The forest provides a home for wild life and a place for man’s recreation. Trees provide shade in summer and protection from the cold winds of winter. They help to control erosion and to regulate stream flow. The scenic value of her woodland is one of Ohio’s greatest assets.

The forest supplies wood in all its forms and many other products for man’s use. When we speak of the products of the forest, some people think only of wood and lumber. Other things are supplied by forest trees. Some furnish nuts and fruits. The maples supply maple sugar and syrup. The sap of the sweet gum provides a storaz for the perfume industry. Resin, turpentine, and different kinds of pitch are made from the sap of pine trees, and the tannin which is used in the manufacture of leather comes from chestnut, oak, hemlock and other forest trees.

Wood, however, is the most important product of the forest. We use it in the form of lumber and building timber, poles, posts, piling and railroad ties, pulpwood products, such as, paper and boxes, and for fuel.

The manufacture of wood waste into wood flour which supplies material for the linoleum industry, for the manufacture of dynamite, and for many composition products, such as, telephone parts, radiator caps, handles, phonograph records, and wall paper. Another use for weed is in the manufacture of rayon or artificial silk. For many years, the walnut veneer industry has produced valuable furniture plywood due to the abundant supply of walnut timber.

The farmer is the greatest wood user and millions of trees must be cut every year to supply him with the things which he needs. The amount of lumber used on farms runs into millions of board feet every year; many millions of the fence posts and cords of wood are used in addition. A substantial cash saving has been made on farms having plenty of fire wood available for fuel. Farms having a good percentage of timber land on them have proven to be most valuable in the past years, since good timber can be sold most any time.

Americans use large quantities of wood fiber in paper and paper products, the base of which is derived from grinding to bits the trunks and limbs of trees. White oak barrel staves, for manufacture into whiskey containers have been very much in demand since the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment.

A noted authority on forestry has estimated it will require more than three hundred years to reforest idle land of the United States. Due to the impetus given agriculture during the World War, many thousands of acres were cleared and farmed for a short time. Most of these acres proved unsuitable for agricultural purposes and as a result are lying idle, eroding badly and contributing to our annual flood problem.

Forests provide, with proper care by man, many of the apparently unknown or seemingly little used products that determine our continued successful existence. Water used for drinking purposes, as it comes from a heavily forested area in the form of springs or small creeks can be considered purer than from an area with less plant life.



PROPAGATION

Shrubs are usually propagate by cuttings. In early spring, cut off a six-inch length from the end of a lilac, syringe, or raspberry twig. Remove all buds except the terminal ones. Stick this in moist sand and keep it where the temperature is not very high. Keep the sand moist, not wet. In time, the stem throws out rootlets and the leaf buds develop. The new plant may now be set out in the garden. When the shrubbery is pruned, in late winter, the twigs that are cut off may be kept to use for cuttings. Cut them up into from four to six-inch lengths with a bud on each. Tie them up in bundles and keep in a cool cellar or bury until spring, when they are set in the sandy soil in the garden until roots and new shoots form. The soil should contain little organic matter.


MAKING LEAF COLLECTIONS

COLLECTION THE SPECIMENTS – Do not take specimens from small seedlings or sprout


43
Growth. These specimens will not be normal and will misrepresent the tree. The leaves should be placed flat in a notebook or kept between cardboards. It is very important in the case of compound leaves such as ash, box elder and walnut, to take the whole leaf and not a leaflet.

PREPARING LEAVES FOR MOUNTING – The leaves must be carefully dried and pressed immediately after collection. Regular pressing cases may be used but are unnecessary. A simple press can be made by placing newspapers on a flat surface and then placing a weighted board on the papers. The leaf specimens are laid between the various sheets of newspaper. The specimens should be left until they are thoroughly dried. If artificial heat can be applied the specimens will dry quicker and are likely to retain their natural color.

MOUNTING SPECIMENTS – The dried specimen is attached to the sheet by strips of gummed cloth. (A supply of this material should be on hand) With these materials ready the specimen is removed from the press and placed upon the mounting paper in such a position that there will be room in the lower right hand corner from the label and in the lower left hand corner for a package containing seed or fruits. In cases of large leaves, especially compound leaves, only one can be placed on a sheet; but, in cases of average sized leaves, two may be mounted, one above the other to show the upper and lower surface of the leaves. To hold the leaf in place, paste strips of gummed cloth across the stem and the points of the leaves. Use as few strips as possible and plan to arrange them neatly. In the case of the pine trees, it is necessary to mount the needles contained in one sheath only, and more than one species of pine may be mounted on a page.


THE TREE CALENDAR

The Tree Calendar shows what takes place in a single tree selected for study. Such a study shows by actual mounted specimens, the winter conditions of twigs and buds; the difference between flower and leaf buds; arrangement of buds on stem, which of course is the arrangement of twigs on the branches; the time of bursting of the flower and leaf buds; time of full flower; kind of flower, whether perfect, monoecious dioecious; time of ripening of fruit; time in full leaf, fall of leaves; and other observations. The specimens illustrating these developments should be mounted on heavy paper or light cardboard and properly labeled. Ingenuity will suggest other devices to make the calendar interesting and attractive. The seedlings of the species would make valuable mounts and result in some interesting observations.


MAKING LEAF PRINTS

As soon as you gather leaves, and before they have a chance to dry out and wrinkle, begin making the prints. Have on hand a quantity of good grade white paper, letter size (8 1/2  x 11 inches.) Have also a self-inking stamp pad, size 3 x 6 inches, or larger if possible, which may be purchased from a book store or perhaps a printer or hardware store for ten or twenty-five cents. A stamp pad consists of a small metal box with a cover, containing an absorbant cloth pad saturated with printer’s ink. A simple but effective pad may easily be made by soaking a thick blotter with India ink or green ink.

Remove a leaf from the notebook and place it on the stamp pad, putting the lower side of the leaf in contact with the ink. Gently press the leaf down upon the pad, cover it with a piece of newspaper, and rub it lightly with a circular motion. If the pad is smaller than the leaf, move the leaf about until every part of the bottom surface has come into contact with the ink.

Lift the leaf from the pad and spread it out with the inked surface touching the paper. Cover it with a newspaper and lightly rub it. Your first print will in all probability be nothing but a large smeary blot. Here are some of the reasons why: (1) Too much ink (2) the paper or the leaf moved slightly, causing a smear (3) the leaf was crushed and pressed too lightly against either the pad or the paper.

Experiment a little with some scrap paper. If there seems to be an excess of ink in the pad, soak a little out on a blotter. Perhaps the blot was caused by pressing too tightly. Examine the under side of the leaf.



44
(Diagram) 

HEIGHT OF TREE

Set a short pole, as in Figure I, in the earth near the tree so that the shadow of the pole will fall on the ground; the slope of which is as nearly as possible the same as that on which the shadow of the tree falls. Measure the height of the pole from the surface of the earth, the length of the shadow it casts, and the length of the shadow cast by the tree. The height of the tree may then be computed as follows: Multiply the length of the tree’s shadow by the height of the pole, and divide the product by the length of the pole’s shadow.

The proportion may be expressed thus: The height of the pole is to the length  of its shadow as the height of the tree is to the length of its shadow.

Or, we can find the height by method illustrated in Figure II, by using a large 45 degree right angle triangle. With the triangle held to the eye, back away from the tree until the top of the tree is just visible.

Measure distance from eye to the ground, from toe to foot of the ground.

Solution Figure I.
If h’ = 6
S = 20
And s’ = 4

Then h/20 = 6/4 
H = 30

Solution Figure II.
If AD = 20’
AB = 4’
BC = 6’
EK = ?



45

DIAMETER OF TREE

An ordinary carpenter’s square forms the beam and fixed arm as shown by (A) Cut a strip of wood (B) about the length of the short arm of the square, an inch and a half wide, and about half an inch thick; cut a piece (C) from a board having a groove along one edge. Screw or nail B and C together as shown in the diagram. A third piece (D) is fastened first to B and then C to act as a brace. Both C and D should be mortised so as to lie flush with the square. Make sure that B is exactly at right angle to C, before finally fastening D to C. This can be done by sliding C along until B is close to the short end of the square.

To measure a tree, hold the instrument horizontally at a height of 4 1/2 feet above the ground (breasthigh) and so that both the short and long sides are in contact with the bark. Slide the movable arm over until B touches the tree, being careful that C stays in close contact with the square.

The diameter of the tree can then be read on the scale of the long arm of the square which touches the tree. The calipers, as described, will need careful handling, since there is nothing to hold the sliding arm parallel and flush with the square. A couple of pieces of scrap iron may be easily attached to C or to B and D extending over A, as an aid in keeping the sliding arm in right position. It will still be necessary to exercise care in seeing that C is kept in close contact with A when reading diameter.


ECONOMIC VALUE OF FOREST

In controlling the water supply, relation to city water supply, irrigation, water power from falls, hydroelectric plants.
Supply of humus in soil.
Prevention of erosion.
As a fuel and in supplying building material.
In the manufacture of paper, alcohol, vinegar, tar, creosote, resin, turpentine. 
Home for birds and other animals.
Effect on climate (wind protection).
The principle causes for the depletion of our forests.
Wasteful lumbering.
Loss from fires.
Losses from fungi and insect parasites.
Losses from grazing animals.
Wind, sleet, and snow.
Methods employed for the protection of forests.
Observance of laws.
Reduction of forest fires.
Control of insect parasites and fungi.
Reforestation – planting of trees.
Forest reserves.
Work of forest rangers.
Forestry schools.


SOME INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Native trees of Ohio.
Classes (main families of trees).
Leaf collections.
Different kinds of fruits of trees.
The role of the forest in controlling floods, in providing good fishing – hiking – hunting – recreation, etc.
Books and poems about trees.
Historical trees.
Kinds of wood used on the farm – for what?
How to handle a campfire – to prevent forest fires.
What kind of wood makes the beat campfire?


46
Uses about home – windbreaks – shade – fuel.
List trees used for lumber and give the special use of each.
Report on the damage caused by the removal of forest growths:
a.	Effect on agriculture.
b.	Effect upon river navigation.
c.	Effect upon the future lumber supply.
Report on the production of rubber, resin, camphor, maple sugar.
Make a collection of pieces of wood from trees valuable for commercial purposes. Label each piece.
Report on the various methods employed to transport logs to a sawmill.
Find the names and locations of the largest forest preserves in the United States.
Give reasons for the destruction of the forests by early settlers.
List the ways in which trees in the street, yard, or park are beneficial.
Explain the importance of the processes of photosynthesis and transpiration in plants.
Report on methods used to protect forests; such as, scientific lumbering, reforestation, establishment of forest reserves, work of forest rangers, the establishment of forestry schools, observance and enforcement of forest laws.
Report on some of the methods of tree surgery.
List trees that you know by sight. List all other trees known to grow in your locality. Learn to recognize at least twenty native trees in their summer foliage. Games to play such as, TWIG MATCHING: Obtain several kinds of twigs 8 to 12 inches long. Cut into two parts. Mount the lower half on a board. Scatter the other halves on a table. At a given signal, the players observe closely one of the twigs and then run to the unmounted group to get the other half. If the wrong half is brought back, he tries again. This game requires close observation. Leaves may be used in the same way, or flowers with short stems may be fitted to longer stems, or leaves to leaf scars. JACK-IN-THE-BOX: A group of children are divided into teams. A branch or flower is held up quickly from the back of a box. The players write down the name of the branch or flower. The team that gets the highest average wins. TREE SILHOUETTES: Cut from black paper the silhouettes of trees. The trees particularly well adapted to this game are spruce, pine, elm, red cedar, weeping willow, palm, sugar maple, Lombardy poplar, and white oak. Hold up the silhouettes for naming. The boys and girls have been divided into teams and the team naming the greatest number wins. GAME OF TOUCH: The players are blindfolded. Objects, such as: various seeds, leaves, fruits, evergreens, flowers, bark of trees, nuts, feathers, shells, vegetables, and soils are places in their hands. They have thirty seconds to feel it. The name is then written down. The individual naming the greatest number wins. TREE TAG DAY: Give each player 10 tags with the names of ten trees common to the tag area. Give them 20 minutes to pin the tags, five feet from the ground, on the north side of the trees named. No tree is to have more than one tag. A great number of tags may be given for an all day tagging. The one tagging the greatest number correctly wins. A second game of “Calling in the Tags” may then be played. A player may bring in any tag except his own. If he finds a tree incorrectly tagged, he leaves it. On the tour of inspection, he obtains two points if he can correct the mistake. The one bringing the largest number wins. FOREST GOOD TURN: The Scout law, “Do a good turn daily,” is well illustrated by this game. Give each group a few minutes to discuss the subject, “Forest Good Turn.” When the whistle is blown, they are given 5 minutes to do a good turn, it is worth two points. This encourages originality. The team performing the greatest number of good turns wins. This promotes exceptional group activity. Some good turns are: Labeling poison ivy, destroying a ten caterpillar’s nest, neatly cutting a broken branch, removing tree fungus, finding a rare flower, picking up rubbish, burying broken glass, hanging out a piece of suet for birds, and planting the seed of a desirable plant. If each camp played this game once a year the amount of good accomplished would be inestimable. SPELLING BEES: Divide players into groups. Play the game with fall flowers, insects, or trees. Hold up a fall flower. The first in line must name it and give an interesting fact about it. If he fails he drops out of line. PROVE IT: Players sit in a circle. The one starting the game says, “From where I am, I can see a gray birch.” The next one says, :From where I stand, I can see a gray birch and a black cherry.” The next player repeats all that the previous players have said, and adds to it. Anyone doubts, he challenges; caught, he drops out.


47-A
(Illustrations)


47-B
(Illustrations)


48

TREES

Red Mulberry. Morus rubra. L,

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Reddish gray-brown. Broken into regular, more or less elongated, scaly plates. Inner bark is tough and stringy. Twigs – stout and greenish red at first, turning brown with age. Milky sap in twigs. Flowers – Appear in May. There are two kinds; staminate and pistillate, usually in different trees. They are small, green in color, without petals, and have a small protecting calyx. They are without fragrance, and rely upon the wind to carry the pollen. Appear where leaves are partially developed. Fruit – A cluster of flowers ripen into a single fruit which ripens early in July. Fruit turns red first, then, dark purple, and is about one inch long. Resembles common blackberry and is sweet and juicy. Leaves – Simple, alternate and large. The leaves are variable in form, usually oval and abruptly drawn into a point. Some resemble a mitten. The margin is toothed. The upper surface is rough, with deeply sunken veins. Color is dark bluish green which turns to yellow in early fall. Milky sap is found in leaves. Leaves appear in late spring and drop in early fall. Weed – Light, coarse-grained and easy to work. In color, it ranges from orange yellow to brown. It is durable in contact with the soil. Trunk – The diameter of the trunk varies from 10 to 25 inches. Branches spreading, form a round head or crown. The Mulberry grows to a height of 20 to 50 feet. Roots – The roots are fibrous and grow rapidly.
WHERE FOUND: In the rich, moist soils of valleys and foothills. It is most abundant and of largest growth in the lower Ohio Valley. General throughout the State of Ohio.

CONSERVATION: The berry of this tree is eaten by the birds. It furnishes them food for many weeks, since all of them do not ripen at one time. Birds will not eat the cultivated fruits if they can have mulberries. Robins, Cedar Waxwings, the Orioles, Catbirds, and Quails are a few of the birds which eat this fruit. It is also a food for man and other animals. The bark is eaten by mammals in winter, e.g. food for rabbits.

INTERESTING FACTS: The inner bark was used by Indians for making ropes and for weaving a coarse sort of cloth. Specimens of charred remains have been found in the Indian mounds of Ohio. These are on display in the Archaeological Museum of Columbus. Wood is used in boat-building and fence posts.


White Mulberry. Morus Alba.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Very rough and deeply ridged. Resembling a neglected apple tree. Irregular scales. Flower – Grow short. Irregular greenish catkins and not attractive. Fruit – Ripens in June or July. Berry is from one-half inch long to one and one-half inch long. Usually white or pinkish tinted. Very sweet, juicy and edible. Bears fruit abundantly. Leaves – Smooth, glassy and light green above, duller below. Mostly ovate with serrate edges, from 3”-7” inches long. Leaves are thin and appear in May. On one tree may be found several different leaves. Wood – Soft, compact, durable and light ochre in color.

WHERE FOUND: Imported to Ohio. More common in the southern part of the state than our native Red Mulberry. It also grows hardy on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Unable to withstand excessive heat and extreme cold.

CONSERVATION: The fruit of this tree is also a favorite of birds and protects other cultivated fruits from being eaten by them. Robins, Catbirds, Orioles, Cedar Waxwings and many other songbirds feed upon these berries. The leaves are fed to silkworms. The wood is used to some extent for boat-building and furniture.

INTERESTING FACTS: This tree is a native of China and is grown for the purpose of feeding silkworms. Fruit and leaves indicate its relationship to our Red Mulberry. This tree is found in all the temperate zones of the world.


Osage Orange. Maclure pomifera (Bow Wood) Schneid

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Deeply and irregularly ridged; color a very light brown; branchlets, especially the lower ones, beset with straight, sharp, thorns 3/4 inches long accompanying the leaves. Flowers – Greenish clusters of staminate and pistillate blossoms produced on separate trees; the staminate in loose, short, rounded clusters; the pistillate in a desnse spherical head, 1 inch in diameter. Fruit – Orangelike, pulpy fruit, 2 1/2 – 4 inches in diameter, with a tuberculate green and golden yellow surface.


49
Osage Orange. (Continued)

Fleshy texture within filled with a milky juice. Ripens in the fall. Seeds are brown. Leaves broadly ovate, abruptly sharp, pointed, toothless, thin, smooth when mature; lustrous deep green above, paler beneath. Turn bright yellow before falling in the autumn. Leaves about 3-4 inches long. 2-3 inches wide. Trunk is short from 2-3 feet in diameter and stoutly erect. Average height of trees 30-50 feet. Wood is a bright ochre color; hard, strong, firm, durable, coarse grained and flexible.

WHERE FOUND: Native of Arkansas and southern Oklahoma, imported into Ohio about 100 years ago for hedge fences; however, less used today, as a hedge plant. Now naturalized all over Ohio.

CONSERVATION: Where it still remains as a hedge fence, it furnishes shelter for quail and small animals such as rabbits.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Osage Orange has been a useful tree to man. The Indians used it for bows and war clubs; the prairie farmer, for hedge fences and wind breaks, later for posts for the wire fences that replaced the hedges. Man has used it for hubs for farm wagons; food for silkworms; dye for khaki cloth. Has also been used for pulley blocks and railroad ties. The bark of the roots contains moric and morintannic acid, and is used as a yellow dye. Bark of trunk is used in tanning leather.


White Pine. Pinus strobus. L.

DESCIRPTION: Bark on young stems is smooth and greenish. It is thick, deeply furrowed and grayish brown on older trees. Flowers are from 4-6 inches long, appearing in June. Two kinds are found on the same tree, staminate and pistillate. Male – yellow. Female – bright pink with purple scale margins. Fruit – Cones grow singly and are cylindrical, with thin, usually very gummy scales. They are light brown in color and from 4-8 inches long. Cones contain small winged seeds fitted into hollows at the base of the cone scales. Require two years to ripen. The seed is red brown mottled with black. Leaves are like needles. Occur in bundles of 5 and are 3-5 inches long. Bluish green on the upper surface and whitish beneath. Trunk 2-5 feet in diameter. Grows erect and straight in forests. In the open, the trunks with spreading branches grow to a height of from 50-180 feet. Wood is soft, light brown, uniform, straight grained, and easily worked.

WHERE FOUND: Moist and well-drained soils. It grows in the northern part of Ohio.

CONSERVATION: White Pine is put to a greater variety of uses than any other tree. There are only a few places where the original virgin stands can be found. All that is cut today is second growth or that which has come up naturally after lumbering or forest fires. This tree grows easily from seed. In cutting White Pine, it is better to leave seed trees to provide future crops. The young trees will gradually take the place of those which have been removed. These trees provide food and shelter for Crossbills, Cedar Waxwings, Pine Warbler, Pine Grosbeak, Pine Siskin and many other birds. It is also a food for red squirrels, gray squirrels, chipmunks, and other animals.

INTERESTING FACTS: The first American house was built of White Pine. It can be used for practically every part of a house. Only a few woods are equal to it for sashes and doors. Wood is used in making boxes because it is easily worked, and stenciled, it holds nails, and is free from odor. Valuable for making patterns for castings. One-half of White Pine cut goes into planning mill products and one-fourth into boxes. The remainder of it is used for patterns, musical instruments, furniture and a great many other products.


Red Cedar. Juniparus virginiana. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark is very thin, light brown and stringy. In old trees, it splits into long strips which makes the tree ragged looking. Flowers are of two kinds and grow as separate trees. Staminate and pistillate are very small peas and berrylike. First, the berri (sic) are whitish, later are dark blue, very sweet, and spicy when ripe. Fruit has one or two seeds. Trunk is tall and slender, 2 – 3 foot in diameter. In Ohio, often small is (sic) stature; in the south, grows quite tall 100 feet. Leaves – There are two forms of leaves, namely, the small scale-shaped and the noodlelike. In winter, become somewhat bronzed and remain on the tree four or five years, then drop off. The tree is never bare, since those of later growth still cling and keep it “evergreen.” Wood – Heartwood is of a rich, red color, light, soft, fragrant, even durable when in contact with moisture.


50
Red Cedar. (Continued)

The sapwood is white and free from knots. 

WHERE FOUND: Sunny slopes and exposed rocky ridges. Found in most unlikely places, from dry hills to rich bottom and swampy lands. Common throughout the State.

CONSERVATION: Wood has so many excellent quantities and the number of uses is almost endless. The tree offers excellent hiding places for birds to build their nests as well as providing food for them. Robins, Cedar Waxwings, Bluebirds, Ruffed Grouse, Pine Siskins, and many others. Berries used in medicines. Oil from twigs used in making perfumes.

INTERESTING FACTS: Berries used in flavoring gin. 100,000 trees used a year for the manufacturing of pencils. Moth proof chests, shipbuilding, windbreaks are uses made of this tree. Red Cedar grows wild in Montgomery country, and this section was its habitat before the great Ice Age. This species has been found in the blue-clay deposits left by the glaciers.


Hemlock. Tsuga Canadensis. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Outer is reddish brown, deeply ridged and thick; inner is cinnamon red. Twigs are very slender, grayish-brown, at first hairy, and rough when needle leaves are shed. Flowers – Staminate yellow and small; pistillate pinkish. Appear in May. Fruit – Cones; light brown, oblong, three-fourths of an inch long, short stalked. Contain a small winged seed that ripens the first winters. Leaves – Short, blunt and flat. Dark green above and silvery below. Spirally arranged but appears as if in two flat rows along the side of twigs. Third row of small leaves point forward on the top of the twigs. Wood – Hard, weak, brittle and soft. Not durable.

WHERE FOUND: Eastern half of Ohio to Lorain, Richland, Delaware, Fairfield, Ross, Adams, Auglaize and Green counties. Found in sandstone soil areas. Grows in shade. 

CONSERVATION: Partridges like the tender sprays of hemlock for food. It is a splendid refuge for such birds as, the Ruffed Grouse, Nuthatches, Pine Siskins, Woodpeckers, Chickadees, Hawks, and Owls. Rabbits are kept warm and dry under the low swinging hemlock branches, weighted down by snow drifts. The bark is rich in tannin. Oil of Hemlock comes from the branchlets. It promises to be an important factor in the wood pulp industry.

INTERESTING FACTS: Attracts lightning. The soft wood is subject to warping. Wood used for coarse lumber, boxes and crates. The height is from 60-70 feet and sometimes reaches 100 feet.


Tamarack. American Larch. Larix laricina. Koch

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On older trees is reddish brown and breaks up into small roundish scales. The glossy brown twigs are covered with numberous tiny spurs. Flowers – Cones nearly spherical, smallest of any American tree, 2/5 of an inch in length, bear about 12 scales, which often stay on the tree many years. Flowers – Light brown in color and come in May. Fruit – Small winged seed, which is released from the cones in the fall. Leaves – Flat, soft, slender and about 1 inch long. Occur singly on twigs of last season’s growth and in clusters of 10 or more on the spurs of older twigs. It is only conifer which sheds its leaves in autumn. Wood – Heavy, hard, and durable in contact with the soil.

WHERE FOUND: Occurs in swamps and wet places locally in the northern part of Ohio. Along borders of glacial lakes, and swamps of Summit, Portage, and Stark counties.

CONSERVATION: It provides food and shelter for Pine Grosbeaks, Crossbills, American Goldfinch and the Lincoln Sparrow. The tree is especially adapted to wet situations where other species will not thrive. It is valuable in preventing soil erosion. Wood is used for railroad ties, telegraph poles, fence posts and used in ship building.

INTERESTING FACTS: Resin from the bark is considered of some medicinal value.


American Elm. White Elm. Ulmus Americana. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Gray, roughened by shallow furrows or scaly ridges. It is thick and rather firm. On young twigs is fibrous and tough. Flowers – Small, brownish or reddish and clustered loosely on slender stems. Depend upon the wind to carry the pollen. Appear long before the leaves begin to show. Fruit – Small round seed surrounded by a thin, flat membranelike wing. Greenish brown in color. In May or June. The wind scatters the seeds. Leaves – Simple, alternate, having serrate edges, long


51
American Elm. (Continued)

Slender point and unequally sided base. Prominent primary veins run straight from midrib to the points of the teeth. Smooth when rubbed one way and rough when rubbed the opposite direction. Wood – Light brown, coarse-grained, hard and tough. Difficult to split, because of twisted and interlacing fibers.

WHERE FOUND: Common throughout Ohio, but abundant in the northern and northwestern part of the state. Grows in moist, heavy soil of the rich bottom lands, on banks of streams, swampy ground, as well as on hillsides and uplands.

CONSERVATION: Practically the last of the trees to be cut down. Trees were left standing by roadsides and fences as a reminder of the original forest. Today, there is a great demand for the wood because of the wood sawing machinery. It is of fundamental importance in the making of automobiles. It grows rapidly. This tree provides an excellent nesting site for the Baltimore Oriole. The seeds are food for Sparrows, Goldfinches, and Brown Creepers.

INTERESTING FACTS: The second oldest living thing east of the Mississippi is the Elm. The wood is in great demand for barrel staves and trunk slate. Historically, among the famous trees of the United States are the Elms. In Ohio, in Pickaway County, is found the Logan Elm; the McGuffy Elms on the north side of the campus of Ohio University; and the Patterson Elm (the oldest tree in Dayton), which stood before America was free from British rule; it fell in 1923. Many poets have written about the Elm.


Black Walnut. Juglans nigra. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On old trees is dark brown, thick, rough, deeply furrowed and with regularly connecting ridges running up and down the trunk. Flowers – Staminate and pistillate – both found on same tree. Staminate in greenish catkins from upper axillary buds. Pistillate in clusters from terminal bud. Pollination depends upon the wind. Flowers appear in May. Fruit – Thick, hard shelled, spherical nut, 1 ½ inches in diameter. Roundish, dull green, hull enclosing an irregularly ridged nut with an oily, sweet, crinkly kernel. Ripens in fall. Leaves – Alternate, compound. 1 – 2 feet long with 11 – 23 leaflets. The leaflets are sharp pointed and heart shaped at base. Aromatic when bruised. Wood – Is rich dark brown. The sapwood is white. Wood is hard, heavy, strong, and has straight coarse grain. Does not warp. Easy to split. Trunk – The diameter of the trunk may be from 3’ – 8’. The Walnut has been found to grow as tall as 150’. It is a tall, handsome tree. Roots – Deep perpendicular roots. Tree grows slowly.

WHERE FOUND: Rich bottom lands of the Ohio river and its tributaries. It will also grow on hillside and far from rivers. Throughout Ohio and reaching its best development in western part of the state.

CONSERVATION: Originally was one of the commonest trees in the Ohio Valley. It was easily cut and the early settlers used it in building log houses. The many uses to which this wood has been put have created a demand for it far greater than the natural supply can meet. “A native wood of unparalleled value.” During the World War, the Government took all  the available Walnut trees to be used for gumstocks and aeroplane propellers. Not less than 80 years are required for the tree to attain sufficient size for valuable lumber for it grows slowly. Ohio has been trying to plant areas with Black Walnut trees in its attempt to save them from further destruction. Useful for valuable lumber, edible fruits, and shade.

INTERESTING FACTS: Found scattered about in the forests. Does not grow naturally in a community of its own kind. Grows tall in forests. In the open, the trunk grows short and branches spread. Outlasts other woods. Walnut stumps have sold for $300.


Yellow Birch. Betula lutea. Michx – Silver Birch or “Swamp”.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Ragged yellow and peels off in thin papery scales. Young trees are silvery yellow; old trees have irregular brown plates. Flowers – Appear in early spring before the leaves; the staminate catkins long; the pistillate erect. Fruit – Cylindrical; yellow and unequally lobed fruit scales. Ripe in autumn. Leaves – Simple, alternate, ovate, and coarsely double-toothed. Dull and dark green above, downy beneath on the veins. Wood – Heavy, strong, hard and close-grained. Sapwood – light colored; heartwood – light brown.

WHERE FOUND: Rich uplands, borders of streams, swamps and ravines. In Ohio – in the northeastern section as well as Fairfield and Hocking counties.


52
Yellow Birch. (Continued)

CONSERVATION: This tree provides food and shelter for birds; such as, Ruffed Grouse, Crossbills, Slate-colored Junco, Tree Sparrows, Cedar Waxwing, Chickadees, and others. It is one of the most important timber trees of Eastern North America. It is used in manufacture of flooring, furniture, woodware, wheel hubs, spools, and also makes an excellent fuel. Paper pulp is made from this tree.

INTERESTING FACTS: Its height is from 50-75 feet. Hardy tree and little subject to insect and fungus attacks. Loose bark is useful to hunters and campers for starting fires. Can be successfully transplanted. Is also used for ornamental purposes.


Butternut. Juglans cinerea. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On young trees is ash gray, with broad flat ridges. Not so rough or so thick as the Walnut; but on old trees, the two barks are quite similar. Flowers – Two kinds found on the same tree. Staminate grow in heavy drooping, long green catkins from lateral buds. Pistillate develop singly or in clusters of 2 – 5 from terminal buds of same branchlet. Fruit – Is hard shelled, sweet, edible nut. It is egg-shaped, heavy, hanging in clusters of 3 – 5, and bluntly pointed at apex. Has a hairy, clammy husk which is thin and hard to remove. Nut has deeply cut ridges and contains a very oily soft kernet of pleasing taste. Ripens in the fall. Leaves – Are alternate, large, light green and compound – 5 – 9 pairs of leaflets, attached directly by the base and the terminal one is stalked. More clammy and more spicy odor than those of the walnut. Wood – Coarse-grained, rather hard and light brown in color. Trunk - 1’ – 4’ in diameter. Limbs are scraggy. Tree lacks symmetry – grows to height of 30’ – 90’.

WHERE FOUND: In rich, moist soil of creek and river valleys, in pastures and rich woods, also hillsides. General, except in the northeastern counties.

CONSERVATION: Once was abundant, but not as plenteous as the Walnut. Used for furniture and interior finish of houses. It is used in the making of medicines and dyes. The fruit is an excellent food. The Pine Siskins often eat cracked butternuts. The fruit of this tree is one of the many nuts listed as a food for squirrels.

INTERESTING FACTS: Inner bark, when first out, quickly turns, on exposure to a lemon yellow – later to a dull yellowish brown. The inner bark and husks were used for dyeing homemade suits of the Confederate Army; hence the nickname, “Butternuts.” Inner bark has a bitter burning taste and was a common remedy among Indians, who applied it externally for toothache, headache, and rheumatism. Pith of twigs arranged in crosswise plates, the same as the Walnut. Wood is “wood carvers” material. Old trees look shabby, hence not used for ornamental planting. The sap is quite sweet and it makes a good syrup. It takes 4 trees to furnish as much sap as one Maple with yield.


Shellbark or Shagbark Hickory
Carya ovate. Koch

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Grayish in very loose, long strips. On young stems it is smooth and light gray. Flowers – Two kinds; staminate in hanging green tassels and pistillate in clusters. Open after leaves have attained nearly their full size. Fruit – round, singly or in pairs. Covered with a thick husk that is deeply grooved at the seams. The nut is compressed and pale. Ripens in the fall and drops freely from thick husks. Kernel is sweet. Leaves – Alternate, compound with five leaflets rarely seven, stalkless and pointed at the ends. Wood – Very hard, heavy, tough and strong. It is close-grained and elastic.

WHERE FOUND: Grows best on rich, deep, well drained soil and is common along streams and on moist hillsides. It is general and abundant throughout Ohio.

CONSERVATION: It was once a very common tree in Ohio forests and is now becoming rare. Lumbermen, for many years, have been paying high prices for its timber. The fruit of this tree is food for the squirrels. Birds such as, The White-breasted Nuthatch, Golden-winged Warbler and the Prairie Warbler build their nests in this tree. To man, the fruit is a valuable food. The wood is useful and valuable; the gum from the sap is very sweet; the bark and glucose make a substitute for maple sugar.

INTERESTING FACTS: The wood is used in the manufacture of chair backs, automobile wheels, handles of golf clubs, and farm implements. It decays rapidly, caused by exposure. As firewood, it has a higher fuel value for it develops more heat.


52-A

Red Oak. Quercus rubra. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On young trees is smooth and light gray. On old trees is thick, rough, blackish gray and sometimes has a reddish tinge. Flowers – Are produced on different parts of the same branches, staminate grow in loose green catkins and pistillate in clusters. Fruit – Plump egg-shaped acorn, one inch long and nearly as wide. Abruptly pointed and held at the base by a broad shallow cup or flat saucer. Kernel is white and not edible; it takes two years to ripen. Leaves – Young leaves have a dainty pink color and covered with a soft, silky down. Mature leaves are firm, smooth and dark green, with sharp bristlelike points on margins. Alternate. The lobes and spaces between are triangular. In autumn, gradually turn red or a rich purple, later a dull brown. Wood – Is hard, reddish brown, close-grained, heavy and strong. It is not durable in contact with the soil. Grain is very coarse and straight. Trunk Has a diameter of 2 – 6 feet. The Red Oak is the tallest of the northern oaks. In the forest, the trunk branches some distance from the ground. In the open, the branches are almost horizontal. The Red Oak is often 140 feet high. Roots – Is deep rooted.

WHERE FOUND: Grows in almost any kind of soil, except extremes of swamps and very dry gravelly hills and rich or rocky woods. General and abundant throughout the State.

CONSERVATION: The tannin of the inner bark is valuable in the making of medicine, also for tanning leather, and in the making of dye. Furniture is made from the wood. The tree provides food and shelter for Nuthatches, Grosbeaks, Chickadees, Chipmunk, Racoon (sic), and Opossum.

INTERESTING FACTS: First among hardwoods, it attains its greatest size in the Ohio Valley. Rugged and sturdy tree, with an inner bark that is light red or pinkish white and is rich in tannin. Leaves fall in November. Easily transplanted and fast growing for each season adds 3 or 4 feet in height. Long-lived and tolerant of city conditions. Slow in coming to leaf in spring. In Ohio pioneer days, the wood was used for rail and shingle splitting.


White Oak. Quercus alba. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Is pale gray and rough, firm, furrowed into deep perpendicular ridges. Twigs greenish or gray and smooth. Flowers – There are two kinds, the staminate catkins and pistillate tassels which appear in May. Fruit – Acorn is one inch long, cylindrical and thin-shelled. It is held in a saucerlike cup of scales. It is firm and green until fully grown and then turns a chestnut brown. Leaves – Alternate and bright olive-green. Have a tendency to grow in clusters at the ends of short twigs. Divided into five to nine deeply cut, finger-shaped lobes. In autumn, the leaves turn various shades of red, changing to a neutral brown. Trunk – 6’ or 8’ in diameter. Tree is short with heavy and wide-spreading branches. In open, the tree is often 2 or 3 times broader than high. Grows to height of 50 to 75 feet in the forest. Wood – Light brown, hard, tough, heavy, strong, and close-grained. Very durable in contact with the soil.

WHERE FOUND: General and abundant throughout the state. In dry upland woods, it attains great height and a large diameter. It grows on sandy plains and on gravelly ridges.

CONSERVATION: Virgin White Oak supply in Ohio is largely exhausted. Two centuries ago, in this state stood the most magnificent growth of White Oak on the American continent. These lay in the path of westward-advancing settlement. They were ruthlessly destroyed when the settlers began to build homes and clear land for farming. These trees provide food for birds; namely, the Blue Jay, Ruffed Grouse, Ring-necked Pheasant, and Woodpeckers and such animals as, squirrels, chipmunks, and raccoons. The acorns of the White Oak have been used for food by the Indians and early settlers. It is also used as a substitute for coffee. The wood is valuable for furniture making, interior finishing, construction timbers of ships, bridges, railroad ties, and agricultural implements.

INTERESTING FACTS: Grows slowly. First among the hardwoods. There are a thousand or more uses for the wood. These trees to the early settler resembled the revered English Oaks. Ohio was once the chief source of White Oak supply and now it is found in the southern Applachian region. Leaves often stay upon the tree all winter.


52-B
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52-G
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52-J

Ohio Buckeye. Aesculus glabra.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Dark brown and scaly on young stems and branches; light gray on trunks, becoming divided or broken into flat plates on old tree, making trunk look rough. Bark has bad odor when bruised. Flowers in April or May. Fruit – Mahogany-colored seeds or nuts, 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide, rounded, slightly flattened on at least one side. Contained in prickly or warty container. Leaves – Compound, star-shaped, opposite; five or more leaflets; usually with bad odor; generally become yellow in summer and fall off. Wood – Whitish, light in weight, soft, weak; easily decays upon exposure.

WHERE FOUND: In low moist regions, on banks of streams. Western Pennsylvania south to Alabama, west throughout Ohio to Illinois, Iowa and Oklahoma.

CONSERVATION: Attractive shade tree; valuable along streams and on hillsides to hold soil. Used for woodenware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, fuel, and sometimes lumber.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the first of our trees to put forth leaves. Indians called the tree “hetuck” (eye of the buck), because the seed resembled the buck’s eye; hence the name. During the presidential campaign of 1840, Ohio received the nickname “Buckeye State.”


Sycamore (Plane tree). Platanus Occidentalis

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On old trunks rather thick, dark brown bark, which peels off in broad scales; showing inner bark of white, greenish and yellowish. Near base of old trees bark is thick and in different furrows. Flowers – On separate catkins; in heads resembling balls; attached to twigs by long stalks. Fruit – Very small seeds inside a ball; ball stays on tree during winter; in spring ball is broken and seeds are scattered. Leaves – Simple, with broad lobes; upper and lower surface green, lower surface paler; from 4 to 7 inches long and about as wide. Wood – Hard; rather strong, decays rapidly in ground. Trunk – Sometimes becomes from 140 to 170 feet high with diameter of 10 or 11 feet. Trunk sometimes separates into several trunks.

WHERE FOUND: From Maine to Minnesota; south to Florida and Texas; throughout Ohio, but not common in northern part; generally along streams or in other moist or wet places.

CONSERVATION: Good as soil binder. Useful in making of bozes, furniture, novelties; used for charcoal and chemicals. Fine for shade.

INTERESTING FACTS: Largest tree in Ohio. Sometimes called “buttonwood”, sometimes “buttonball.”


Quaking Aspen. Populus tremuloides michx.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Thin, yellowish-brown to orange-green, often roughened toward the base. Flowers – Two kinds borne on separate trees – the male catkins about 2 inches long and the female, or pistillate, flowers in a long slender cluster up to 4 inches in length. Fruit – Matures in May or June, oblong-conic, light green, thin-walled, nearly 1/4 inch long; seeds obovoid, light brown, about 1/32 of an inch in length. Leaves – Thin, ovate to disk-shaped, short-pointed, finely toothed, with flattened leaf-stalks. Wood – Light brown, with nearly white sapwood of 25 to 30 layers of annual growth. Soft, weak, and not durable. Trunk – Medium sized tree, reaching heights of 80 feet and a diameter of 20 inches, but usually somewhat less. Root – Spreads very rapidly by its root-sprouts or suckers, lateral extension.

WHERE FOUND: Newfoundland to Alaska and south to New Jersey, Kentucky, Mexico, California and northern Ohio.

CONSERVATION: Very fine soil binder, grows rapidly on burned over lands.

INTERESTING FACTS: Has been the simile for writers to express perpetual motion. Used in the manufacture of lard pails, excelsior, paper pulp and wooden dishes. Also called Small Toothed Aspen – American Aspen – Popple – Poplar.


52-K

Carolina Poplar. Populus deltoids.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Thin, smooth, light yellow tinged with green on young stems and branches, becoming on old trunks 1 to 2 inches thick, ashy gray, and deeply divided into broad rounded ridges broken into closely appressed scales. Flowers – Flowers appear before the leaves, pollen-bearing and seed-producing occur on different trees. Both are arranged in drooping tassels. Fruit – The fruit containing the seed has a cluster of white silky hairs, which carries it for long distances. Leaves – Simple, alternate, broadly triangular, square at base, 3 to 5 inches long, with long and laterally flattened leaf-stalks. Wood – Dark brown, with nearly white sapwood, soft, not durable, works easily. Trunk – 6 to 7 feet in diameter, 70 to 90 and sometimes 160 feet high. Divided often 20 to 30 feet above the ground into several massive limbs spreading gradually, and becoming pendulous toward the ends. Roots – Very fine, shallow, soil binders.

WHERE FOUND: Quebec, south to Florida, and west to the Rocky Mountains. Occurs throughout Ohio.

CONSERVATION: Valuable for the reforestration (sic) of eroded areas, such as, lowlands and flood plains, and along the banks of lakes and streams. 

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the most rapid growing trees, native to Ohio. Should not be grown in cities, because the roots damage sidewalks, streets, sewers, etc., also wood is so brittle, that falling branches are a menace to life and property. Used in the manufacture of the highest grade of gloss-magazine paper for the printing of half-tone illustrations. Also called Cottonwood, or Necklace Poplar.


American Beech. Fagus grandifolia Americana. 

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Most distinctive as it maintains an unbroken, light gray surface throughout its life. Flowers – Flowers are of two kinds, appearing about April; pollen-bearing occur in stalked round heads; the nut-producing in a few flowered clusters. Fruit – Nuts about 3/4 of an inch long; brown, three-sided in pairs in prickly burr; sweet edible. Burrs have stout stems persisting open upon the branchlets late into the winter. Leaves – Simple, alternate, 3 to 4 inches long, pointed at tip, wedge-shaped at base, coarsely toothed along margin. When mature they are stiff, leathery, with straight, sunken veins. Wood – Hard, strong, tough, but not durable in contact with soil. Makes an excellent fuel, used extensively in the manufacture of charcoal, chemicals, novelties, woodenware, crates and general construction. Trunk – A straight columnar trunk 3 to 4 feet in diameter and sometimes 100 feet in height. Root – In old age it often sends up many shoots from its roots which form a thicket around the base, and as the parent tree declines, the fittest of these survive and take its place.

WHERE FOUND: Rich uplands, New Brunswick to western Ontario, generally in Ohio, south to Virginia, Michigan, and Minnesota.

CONSERVATION: A very fine forest tree, will grow under almost any conditions, generally found in groves; a very fine shade tree. Roots are very fine soil binders thus checks erosion. Nuts are food for wild life.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the most beautiful of all trees, very ornamental. So tempting is their smooth expanse to the owner of jackknives that the beech has been called the “initial tree.”


Honey Locust. Gleditsia triacanthos.

DESCRIPTION: Park – Dark grayish-brown; on young trees smooth, on older ones, rough with broad, jagged dark brownish ridges. Flowers – Greenish, appear about May or June, and are of two kinds; pollen-bearing are arranged in short tassels; the pod-bearing occur in few-flowered clusters. Fruit – Thin, flat more or less twisted, reddish-brown pod, 10 to 12 inches long, containing many small flat seeds and often persists far into the winter. Leaves – Leaves alternate, singly or doubly compound, 7 to 8 inches long. When singly compound, they have 18 to 20 leaflets, and when doubly compound have 8 to 14 pinna each with 18 to 20 leaflets. Wood – Hard, heavy, strong, reddish-brown with pale sapwood. Rather durable in contact with soil. Used for fence posts, rails and general construction work. Trunk – 2 to 3 feet in diameter, trunk and bases of the large branches often bristle with very formidable branching thorns.


52-L
Honey Locust. (Continued)

Height of tree varies from 75 feet to 140 feet.

WHERE FOUND: Pennsylvania and western New York to Michigan, Ohio and Kansas, south to Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. It inhabits chiefly moist bottomlands. 

CONSERVATION: Grows under a wide variety of soil and moisture conditions. It sometimes occurs in the forest, but more commonly in corners and waste places beside roads and fields.

INTERESTING FACTS: Extensively planted for ornamental purposes. The bees gather much honey from its flowers.


Sugar Maple. Acer saccharum

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On young stems and large branches pale, smooth or with slight fissures; pn ;arge trunk in deep longitudinal furrows; surface light gray-brown, separating into small scales. Flowers – Appear with the leaves; yellowish-green; both pollen-bearing and seed-producing flowers are in drooping clusters with slender stalks. Fruit – Ripens in fall; two wings about an inch long; easily carried by wind. Leaves – From 3 to 5 inches across, with from 3 to 5 sparsely toothed lobes; rounded divisions between lobes. Upper surface dark green, under surface lighter; in autumn deep red, scarlet, orange and yellow. Wood – Heavy, strong, close-grained, tough; light brown with tinge of red. Trunk – Hard and sturdy; bark in longitudinal furrows. Roots – Shallow.

WHERE FOUND: Generally distributed in Ohio; abundant in Western Reserve.

CONSERVATION: Good for shade; yields sap for maple syrup and maple sugar; good timber.

INTERESTING FACTS: Getting sugar from maple tree began with Indians. Indians held a great festival when sap began to run; moved to maple groves.


White Ash. Fraxinus Americana. L.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Varies in color from light gray to gray brown. The rather narrow ridges are separated with marked regularity by deep, diamond-shaped fissures. Flowers – The flowers are of two kinds on different trees, the male in dense reddish-purple clusters, the female in more open bunches. Fruit – Winged, 1 to 1 1/2 inches long, resembling the blade of a canoe paddle in outline, with the seed at the handle end. The fruits mature in late summer and are distributed affectively by the winds. Leaves – The leaves are from 8 to 12 inches long and have from 5 to 9 plainly stalked, sharp-pointed leaflets, dark green and smooth above, pale green beneath. The White Ash form the only group of trees in eastern America that have opposite, compound leaves with 5 or more leaflets. This fact in itself provides a ready means of identifying the group. Wood – Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough and brown, with thick light colored sapwood. Trunk – Average height 50 to 80 feet. Diameter 2 to 3 feet, through much larger trees are found in virgin forests. Roots – Shallow. 

WHERE FOUND: Fertile moist soils, meadowlands, borders of lakes and streams. Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. It is common in all parts of Ohio, except the southern part. Throughout the Western Reserve it is abundant.

CONSERVATION: Very valuable, easily propagated.

INTERESTING FACTS: The most beautiful of our native ash trees. Very important forest tree. Used extensively for the manufacture of athletic equipment, agricultural implements, tools, furniture and interior finishings.


Silver Maple. Acer saccharinum.

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On branches and young stems smooth and gray; grayish-brown on old trunks, on which it is separated into thin flakes. Flowers – Appear before leaves; in clusters; vary in color from reddish to yellowish-green. Fruit – A pair of winged seeds; weeds from 2 to 3 inches long and wide-spreading. Fruit becomes mature in early summer, soon falls. Seeds germinate the same year. Leaves – Silvery, white on under surface; 5 lobes separated by deep clefts with rounded base; simple toothed, and opposite, downy on under surface when young. Wood – Rather soft and brittle; weak; close-grained; sapwood white, other parts light brown. Trunk – Generally 


52-M
Silver Maple. (Continued)

Short, dividing into different large limbs; limbs divided into small branches.
Roots – shallow

WHERE FOUND: Generally on moist land, and near streams.

CONSERVATION: Susceptibility to insects and fungus diseases, and its brittleness make this tree less desirable for planting, although it grows rapidly and affords good shade.

INTERESTING FACTS: Used for making baskets, paper, and small household articles.


Black Willow. Salix nigra

DESCRIPTION: Bark –Deeply divided into broad, flat ridges which separate into thick plate-like scales, becoming very shaggy on old trees. In color, it varies from light brown, tinged with orange to dark brown or nearly black. Flowers – Catkins, the male and female on separate trees. Fruit – A pod, bearing numerous minute seeds which are furnished with long silky down, enabling them to be blown for long distances. Leaves – From 3 to 6 inches long and less than 1/2 inch wide; the tips tapered, margins finely toothed. Leaves, bright green on both sides, turning pale yellow in the early autumn. Wood – Soft and light weight, light reddish brown in color, with thin nearly white sapwood. Trunk – Rarely grows over 50 feet in height, usually several clustered stout stems, thick spreading upright branches forming a broad somewhat irregular open head; reddish-brown or gray-brown branchlets, hairy when they first appear, soon smooth, and easily separated at the joints.
Winter Buds – Acute, about 1/8 of an inch long.

WHERE FOUND: New Brunswick to Florida, west to the Dakotas and southern Mexico. It is generally distributed throughout Ohio along streams and depressions in flood plains. Usually found in wet places but will grow in dry situations.

CONSERVATION: Should be planted along stream and lake banks to prevent soil erosion. Valuable for lumber, used in making boxes, excelsior, charcoal, and pulp.

INTERESTING FACTS: Chief wood used in the manufacture of artificial limbs. Only large native willow. Will not warp, check or splinter, very hardy, and will grow almost anywhere.


Wild Black Cherry, Rum Cherry, Cabinet Cherry
Prunus serotina

DESCRIPTION: Bark – On young trunks and branches smooth, bright reddish-brown marked by conspicuous narrow whitish lines or breathing pores. Bark on older limbs and trunks black, rough, broken into thick irregular plates. Flowers – White, one-fourth inch across, arranged in spikes 3” to 4” long. Fruit – Dull purplish-black, juicy berry, about one-third of an inch in diameter, borne in long hanging clusters. Ripens in late summer. Edible, slightly bitter in taste. Leaves – Alternate, simple, oval to lance shaped 2” to 5” long, finely toothed margins, thick and shiny above, paler beneath. Wood – Reddish-brown with yellowish sapwood, moderately heavy, hard, strong, fine grained, does not warp or split in seasoning. Trunk – 1’ to 3’ in diameter, about seventy feet high; forest-grown trees have long straight trunks; open-grown trees have short trunks with many branches and irregular spreading crowns.

WHERE FOUND: At its best in moist deep soils of southern Ohio but may be found generally over the state.

CONSERVATION: Valuable for lustre and color, used in furniture making, interior finishings, tools, ties, implement handles and high-class panels. Fruit is food for birds and bees frequent the flowers. Good root binding systems to hold soil.

INTERESTING FACTS: Next to black walnut, cherry lumber has greater unit value than any of the hardwoods of eastern United States.



53
(Illustration)

FLUSHING BAR

There are various types of flushing bars that can be attached to mowers or reapers to flush ground nesting birds before the cutting blade destroys them on the or the cover for their nests. The machine is halted and the sickle lifted after the bird flushes, so as to leave an “island” of cover over and around the nest, as shown in Picture I. Picture II represents a field in which a flushing bar was not used.

The Gopher Camp Fire Club flushing bar (Fig. I), is made of 5/16-inch soft iron; one end looped and the other welded to a 2 by 6-inch plate, in which two 3/8-inch holes are drilled. The drilled end of the bar is bolted to the tongue near the mower, and the looped end is fastened to the hames. The bar is then bent down to within 8” of the ground. A simpler device, the Iowa flushing bar (Fig. 4), consists of a bamboo pole 10 to 12 feet long, extending out from the neck yoke and supporting burlap sacks that are slightly weighted with links from old tire chains. The outer end of this bar consists of a bamboo pole, as in Figure IV, with pieces of chain attached by wires.


54
(Illustration)


55
(Illustration)


56

A GAME RESTORATION

What wild life needs most of all is a favorable habitat, a good home. There are many areas in Ohio, which are so lacking in suitable game habitat, that a long time quickly, by little groups of sportsmen getting together and building dozens of temporary retreats and shelters; and by dedicating desirable areas solely to wildlife cover.

In addition to suggestions illustrated in the sketches, there are many others of like value that can be devised. Naturally, the locations for them are all important. They can be placed in pastures, abandoned fileds, over grazed woodlots, and other places where shelter is deficient. It is important, wherever possible, to cover over retreats shown in the sketches with plenty of stones or brush as a protection from dogs, the more cover the better.

There are also many other things which can be done in cooperation with farmers. If the farmer is properly approached, he will, in many instances, lend his assistance which is conducive to more friendly feelings.


WHAT A GAME REFUGE IS

A game refuge is an area of good game breeding territory upon which no hunting whatsoever is permitted, and where valuable wild life may live and multiply under natural conditions. The area selected for a refuge should be one producing an abundant supply of natural game food, water, and ample cover; although cover and water are of secondary importance to food. It is useless to create a refuge where these requisites are lacking. Give game a chance to live and propagate within its natural grounds, undisturbed in so far as possible by man or beast, and a natural increase can be expected. Even before the saturation point for the prescribed area is reached a portion of the annual increase wanders outside the refuge and becomes legal game for sport. World Almanac, 1930. World and Telegram, New York City lists national refuge.

HOW REFUGES BEGAN

The modern game refuge system was started by an old Frenchman living up in the mountains of Pennsylvania.

One day in the fall of 1905, the late Dr. Joseph Kalbfus, executive secretary of the Pennsylvania Game Commission, and Bromley Wharton, private secretary to Governor Samuel W. Pennypacker, were deer hunting in Clinton County.

Dr. Kalbfus told Mr. Wharton about the old Frenchman, who shot all mongrel dogs that chased deer near his cabin. The deer has come to know that when pursued by dogs the mountaineer would protect them so they headed straight for his cabin.

Mr. Wharton then conceived the idea of what he called, “havens of refuge,” which were set apart in the forests by strands of wire.

Tom Lynch, an official coworker, and Mr. Wharton drew up a bill, which, bearing the approval of the Legislature and the signature of the Governor, set in motion the present Pennsylvania system of game refuges and public hunting grounds that has made that state famous for its game supply.


HUMAN ENERGY

Energy is the chameleon of science. It appears as host, as light, and as motion. It is stored chemically in the food we eat, the air we breathe, and the coal that keeps us warm. It sends the electric current humming along our telephone wires, and it annoys our neighbors via loud speakers. It is latent in all matter, for Einstein has shown us that mass and energy are only two different forms of the same thing. Yet, whatever its form, it remains intrinsically the same; the capacity to do work. The need to know more about the neutrino which is somewhat of an explanation of that energy that simply disappears leaving no trace of its passing, - seems to take place when the electron is moving too slowly to use up all the excess energy within the parent nucleaus. When this is known, we will know more about energy.


LIVING AS A PROBLEM OF ENERGY

1.	In economizing energy.
2.	Energy income from food obtained.
3.	Effective use of energy in quest of food.


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ENERGY CYCLE

Birck states in The Theory of Marginal Value, “As a means, man is a working machine, which creates and supplies energy; our consumption refunds us the energy expended, by our activity; part of the energy supplied through our consumption is expended merely in keeping alive – ‘in preserving the machine.’ We know from feeding experiments that the functions of life consume a great part of the calories of the food, only a part is transformed into muscle; while the other is converted into productive work. Progress, whether individual or universal, is founded upon the existence of a surplus of energy; part of the energy at our command, we invest in the productions of our labor. The workman is possessed of working power which produces doses of energy. These doses of energy may be useful in themselves (personal services) or be incorporated in things (substances); substances as well as services are thus economic goods. We now have the cycle: Human energy – production – economic goods – consumption – satisfaction – energy. Compare: want – effort- satisfaction.”

MORE EFFECTIVE WAYS OF STORING ENERGY

1.	More ways of playing to get more fun out of life.
2.	New and more effective ways of storing; established by ability to look ahead.
3.	Control over the rate of multiplication.
3.1	Civilized men on narrow margin of surplus energy
3.2	Some parts of human race need reconstruction.
3.3	Migration as a relief for overpopulation.
3.4	Developing new markets.
3.5	Environmental factors are necessary to life.

TRANSFORMING SOLAR INTO VITAL ENERGY

Radiant energy of the sun is stored in growing plants by a chemical process known as photosynthesis. The consumer in turn stores the supply in brain and muscle ready to put to use for mental or physical activity. The primary source of energy is the sun, and our most important power sources are composed of organic material. This was grown in the sunlight of past ages and is now buried in the earth; here it has been, converted into coal, oil, gas, peat, and oil shale through the heat and pressure of nature’s underground laboratories. There can be no question that we have energy sources potentially available for men’s every need, for thousands of years, at the present rate of consumption. Plant life is eaten by animals and a part of that energy is in turn transformed into the animal’s life. Of this, a portion is again stored in the bodies of animals; when plants and animals are eaten by humans, a part of this is again transformed into human energy.

Human intelligence has been applied to the problem of transforming the largest possible quantity of solar energy into human energy and is the same as saying that human intelligence has been applied to the problem of economizing human energy.

There is a universal tendency either through rest, play or reproduction to store any surplus energy that happens to develop. Such storing of energy, as is practiced by lower creatures, is either physiological or instinctive; among higher animals is more purposeful.

In order that the maximum quantity of solar energy may be transformed into human energy, it is necessary that the maximum number of people should live and that they should live as well as possible; that is, that they should live in such a way as to show the largest possible energetic profit.


RELATION OF THRIFT TO HIGH STANDARD OF LIVING

By standard of living is meant the number of desires that takes precedence in the individual’s choice.

The thriftiest are those with highest standard of living. Thrift consists in spending money and time for things which will bring a permanent or a durable advantage.

Human beings may be said to store some of their own energy when they use it to collect, assemble, build or construct in more or less durable form, a mass of materials.

This may inspire to higher endeavor and thus be a factor in the economizing of the energy.

Thrift, as applied to human conduct, is of interest.


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“The increasing complexities and strains of modern life have made physical and mental health a matter of public concern. Recreation is now recognized as an element of major importance in the cultural life.” The recognition evidenced in this statement hints at the tie-up of these phases of man’s life and that the balance of all, seemingly, has been partially lost and man must come back to recreation or play; or may we any Nature, for in Nature is the complete story of human energy; for her message is, for her message is, “There is no hurry, life goes on.”

Civilization is the art of living together comfortably in large numbers. This requires considerable modification of human behavior. Self-expression must give way to self-discipline. How much self-discipline can we stand? Upon the answer to this question depends the level of civilization.

Other creatures, such as the ants, have very elaborate social systems and perform remarkable engineering feats. Only humans make use, on a large scale, of power that is not generated in their own bodies. Animal power, dynamotor, steam, and gasoline engines have been important factors in giving man his dominion over the rest of creation. Economics, sociology, and ethics are all concerned with the economizing of human energy. Behavior should be evaluted (sic) in terms of its survival value, not in terms of its origin.


INSECTS

Insects are among the most interesting and available of all living creatures for nature study. The lives of many of them afford more interesting stories than are found in fairy lore; many of them show exquisite colors and more than all, they are small and are therefore easily confined for observation.

For making as insect net, the materials required are a handle about 3 feet long (an old broom handle will do), a piece of tin, 3 inches wide and long enough to reach around the handle; a piece of No. 3 galvanized wire, 3 feet 6 inches long; 1/6 yard of heavy sheeting; and 3/4 yard of cheesecloth, or an one hundred pound sugar sack. 

Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about 3 inches of each end of the wire, so they may be inserted into a hole drilled into the end of the handle. The piece of tin should be fastened around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it securely in place. After this is done, take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double, using only enough to fit around the wire without gathering; the object of this heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly. Make the cheesecloth into a bag, with a rounded bottom and with the top edge just wide enough to fit the facing of sheeting, to which it should be sewed securely. When this is done, the net is finished.

In use, the net must be swung swiftly, to be successful. One method of using the net is called “sweeping.” To do this, grasp the handle about a foot and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth, stalking it against the grass, as you walk through open fields. The net must be turned at each stroke, and kept in rapid motion, otherwise the insects will escape. After a time, the net should be examined and the insects put in the killing bottle.


THE KILLING BOTTLE

The materials needed for a killing bottle are: a bottle with a wide mouth, (small olive or pickle bottle will do); a cork that will fit the bottle tightly and be long enough to handle easily; five cents worth of cyanide of potassium; and two cents worth of plaster of Paris. These may be procured from any drug store.

Place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough water to cover it. Add immediately enough plaster of Paris. These may be procured from any drug store.

Place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough water to cover it. Add immediately enough plaster of Paris to soak up all the water. Leave the bottle open in a shady place for an hour, put in the cork, and it is ready for use.


INSECT PINS

After the insects are killed, they should be pinned and arranged in the collection in an orderly manner. Common pins are not good for pinning insects. Use insect pins Mos. 1, 3, and 5, which cost thirty costs a hundred.

All insects, except beetles, should be pinned through the part of the body just back of the head. Beetles should be pinned through the right wing cover. About one fourth of the pin should project above the back of the insect. A very small insect may be gummed to a narrow strip of cardboard, and the pin put through the cardboard. Specimens should be labeled with the date and the locality of their capture. 


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INSECT BOXES

For the beginner, no insect box is more convenient than an empty cigar box, which may be obtained at any store where cigars are sold, firm material into which the insect pins may be pushed easily without being bent. There are many such materials: sheet cork or pressed peat may be obtained from dealers in entomological supplies, cork linoleum 1/4" thick at carpet stored.

Museum pests are small beetles that find their way, even thru (sic) the narrowest crevice, into the insect boxes; and then lay their eggs on the pinned insects.

The larvae, when they hatch, work within the specimens at first, but after a time destroy the bodies entirely. The presence of these little pests may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box below the infested insect. As soon as this dust is observed, pour into one corner of the box a tablespoon of carbon bisulphide, or benzine, and close the box quickly. To prevent the beetles from attacking the collection, it is well to fasten a “moth ball” (obtainable at any drug store) in one corner of the box.


THE SPREADING BOARD

Butterflies and moths look much better in a collection when their wings are extended at right angles to the length of the body. To arrange them thus, a spreading board is necessary. The materials needed for a medium sized spreading board are: two strips of pine or some other soft wood, 18 inches long, 3 1/4 inches wide, and 1/8 inch thick; and two cloats, 1 inch wide and as high and as thick as the others; and a strip of cork or linoleum, 17 inches long and a little loss than 1 inch wide.

To construct the spreading board, place the two narrow strips of wood 1/4 inch apart, and on the under side fasten them across the ends to the longer cleats. Then, on the same side as the cleats, tack the piece of cork or linoleum over the space between the strips of board; as the cleats are 1/2 inch wide, the linoleum should cover all the space left. Midway of the length of the boards, fasten the two smaller cleats. Now it is ready for the bottom board, which will fit exactly, if these directions have been correctly followed. And this completes the spreading board. The space between the two upper boards is wide enough to take in the body of the moth or butter-


59-A

Fly. The cork or linoleum below the space will hold the pin firmly on which the butterfly is impaled. The cleats hold the top and bottom hoards apart, and so protect the points of the pins. Spreading boards may be made much smaller or much larger, to suit moths of different sizes; but the space between the top boards must always be large enough to admit the body of the insect.

To use the spreading board, insert the pin with the butterfly on it into the linoleum just far enough so that the body of the insect will be in the space between the boards. Place the wings out flat on the board, and fasten by pinning narrow strips of paper, arrange them so the back margins of the front wings will cover the front margins of the back wings and will be in a line at right angles to the body then, pin larger pieces of paper over the rest of the wings. The insects should be left on the spreading board at least three days; and when, the board has insects on it, it should be kept in a box where the museum pests and mice cannot get at it.


CLASSIFICATION

The following may be helpful in classifying the specimens:

DRAGON FLIES: -There are many kinds of dragon flies; they all have four wings, finely netted and transparent, the back wings being as large or larger than the front wings. These are perfectly harmless insects.

GRASSHOPPERS – CRICKETS – AND KATYDIDS: -Grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids are known to all. There are two families of grasshoppers; those with long horns, or antennae, and those with short antennae. Katydids, crickets, cockroaches, and walking sticks are near relatives of the grasshoppers.

BUGS: - Bugs have the front pair of wings thick and heavy at the base, and thin and transparent at the tips. The squash bug, the chinch bug, and the electric light bug are examples of these. Some bugs have the front wings entirely thin and transparent and sloping, like a stoop roof, over the back of the insect, like the cicada and the tree hopper.

BEETLES: -Beetles have hard wing covers which meet in a straight line down the back and have a pair of thin wings folded under them. The June bug, or May beetle, and potato beetle are good examples of beetles.

FLIES: - Flies have only two wings, usually transparent. Behind each of these wings, a short thread with a knob on it extends out on each side of the body; these take the place of wings. House flies, horseflies, and mosquitoes are examples of flies.

BEES – WASPS – AND ANTS: -Bees, wasps, and the winged form of ants have four transparent wings. Some flies resemble bees and wasps, but if examined, it will be found that they have only two wings instead of four.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS: -Butterflies and moths may be distinguished by the following characteristics: the antennae, or horns of the butterflies are always threadlike and knobbed at the tip, while the antenna of moths are of various shapes, but never have knobs at the tips.


60-A
(Illustration)


60-B
(Illustrations)


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INSECTS
Lesser Migratory Locust or Grasshopper. Melanoplus atlantis.

DESCRIPTION: Like all insects the grasshopper’s body is divided into 3 parts – head, thorax, and the abdomen. Characterized by long, slender hind legs with muscular thighs, which show its adaptability for jumping. Front legs are short, middle legs are longer. Toe pads are covered by hairs which secrete sticky substances. Has long face with compound eyes placed high  upon it; on the front of the head are the simple eyes. Mouth parts suited for biting, has 2 pairs of jaws. Wings are as efficient as its legs; protected while at rest by a thickened wing covering. Size – 2” long. Locomotion – hop or fly. Most active at midday.

HABITAT: Lawns, meadows, roadsides, and grain fields. Abundant in Ohio.

FOOD: Growing crops, grasses, sometimes foliage of Elm, Hawthorn, Apple, and Oak trees.

LIFE CYCLE: Latter part of summer, female drills deep holes below surface of ground or in decaying wood, where in pod shaped masses she lays her eggs. Here, the eggs usually remain during winter. In spring, eggs hatch and young raise the lid to the tubular egg case and come into the upper air. Grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

INTERESTING FACTS: When irritated, grasshoppers spit out a brown liquid. Male calls by friction of hind legs against wing covers. No wings until fifth molt or adult.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Often very destructive to crops. Food for birds and other insect eaters.


Cricket. Crylius assimilis luctuosus

DESCRIPTION: Characterized by large, strong, biting jaws; large, strong, hind legs for jumping; and long, slender feelers. Body is inclined to be slightly flattened. Color – shiny black. Size – about 1” long. Locomotion – leaping or crawling; no wings for flight.

HABITAT: In meadows, cultivated fileds, and gardens. In Ohio, general and abundant.

FOOD: Grain, fruits, vegetables, grasses, and sometimes cloth when wet.

LIFE CYCLE: The female has a swordlike ovipositor at end of her body which she thrusts into the ground and lays eggs in masses of several hundred. Here the eggs remain until they hatch in the spring.

INTERESTING FACTS: Song of the cricket is made by rubbing the filelike edge of the under wing against the overlapping wing. When not calling, the wings are folded along its flat back. Auditory membranes in the long joint of the last pair of legs.

OTHER SPECIES: Besides true crickets, there are 2 other kinds, the mole and tree. Mole cricket acts like tiny black mole. First pair of legs are broadened and turned sidewise which make strong, stout, diffing claws. Tree cricket – pale apple green. Live on plant lice and scale insects. Damage done by adults sliting (sic) twigs to lay eggs. One species of tree crickets lay eggs in the stems of the raspberry.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destroy grasses, grains, fruits, and clothing. Food for birds and insect eaters.


Honey Bee. Apis mellifera.

DESCRIPTION: Three kinds of bees, queen, body more graceful, and longer than workers and drones. Drones are males and larger than workers, more hairy, stronger, do not work. He is king. Workers have pollen baskets on hind legs; glands secrete wax; and straight needlelike stinger. Honey stomach has nectar stored in it until bee reaches hive where it is forced out in “combs”. Flavor changed. Color – newly emerged bee is covered with fluffy golden hair. After 4 weeks in field, it is darker, much of the hair has been worn from its body and its wings are tattered and torn.

HABITAT: Queen hive, workers hive, fields.

FOOD: Adults eat nectar. Larvae live on pollen and honey water.

LIFE CYCLE: Queen lays eggs in wax cells. After 3 days, a white grub hatches from it. Three days of larval life are followed by 12 days in the pupal stage. Egg takes only 16 days to develop into a queen; 24 days to develop into a drone; and 2 days to develop into a worker.

INTERESTING FACTS: Early Biblical symbolism of industry and plenty. Ancients used honey as energy food. Life history inspired philosophers. In the United States today these bees yield about 100,000 tons of marketable honey annually; they are of even more importance to agriculture. Called “Priest of Flowers”. Not native of North


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Honey Bee. (Continued)

America. Average life of worker is 6 weeks. Queen lives from 3-6 years. Drones die after mating; those not mating die in the fall, for only the queen and workers live and are semi-active throughout the winter. When a bee slights on a flower, the pollen grains become entangled in its numerous hairs. After thoroughly covering itself with pollen, the bee hovers above the flower, combing the pollen from itself and packing it securely in the 2 pollen baskets on its hind legs. Pollen stored in the hive is often referred to as “bee bread” which is used as food for young bees. Royal jelly, a milky white secretion from the glands of workers, is fed to the queen larva. Bee gum, (propolis) is a sticky substance used to strengthen cells and patch up holes. Workers keep the hives clean, guard the entrance to the colony and provide ventilation.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Beneficial to agriculture. Pollinate flowers. There is commercial value in the honey and beeswax.


Clothes Moth. Tinea pellionella.

DESCRIPTION: This insect has a cylindrical case-making larva, in which it travels about. The young caterpillar is whitish. This moth differs from the pale colored Clothes Moth (Tinea biselliella) in having the fore wing shining, yellowish brown and obscurely marked; the hind wings are lighter and plain, both pairs, fringed with long hairs, are long, narrow, and pointed at end. There is a third Clothes Moth (Trichophaga tapetezella). Moth jaws are quite unsuited to eating and its only business is to lay tiny eggs. Locomotion – Adults fly; larvae crawl about in case. 

HABITAT: Hides in dark corners and garments. 

FOOD: Woolen goods, furs, feathers.

LIFE CYCLE: Lay eggs in dark places early in the spring, which hatch into larvae. The full grown larvae spin cocoons in which they transform to pupa or chrysalis stage. Larvae never leaves (sic) its case until it becomes a moth. Cases 4/16”-6/16” long. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Larva can enlarge its case without leaving it. A slit is made along each side with its scissor jaws and then a fresh length of material is inserted. This it does lengthwise and sidewise. The chrysalis works its way out of the case by means of little spines on its back.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Too abundant. Destructive to clothing, furs, and carpets.


Angoumois Grain Moth. Sitotroga cerealella.

DESCRIPTION: Resembles Clothes Moth; has narrow wings, bordered with long fringe. Color – It is buff to grayish or yellowish brown. Eggs are microscopic (about 1/40” long) white, later reddish. Larvae – 1/5” long; white, with a yellowish brown head. Pupa or chrysalis is reddish brown. Size of moth is .6” to .7” from tip to tip of the spread wings. Locomotion – Moths fly; larva bores its way into seed.

HABITAT: Grain fields, stored grain in shallow bins. FOOD: Starch within grains. LIFE CYCLE: During summer and early fall, the moths mate as soon as they crawl from the seed. The female may start laying eggs in less than 24 hours after emergence from the chrysalis. During summer weather, it takes 4-10 days for the eggs to hatch, (in colder weather from 3-4 weeks). Insects require only 18 days for the eggs to hatch, (in colder weather from 3-4 weeks). Insects require only 28 days from hatching of eggs to emergence of the moth; hence a life cycle is less than 5 weeks. In winter, the larvae lie dormant 5 months. 5 generations a season under normal weather conditions. 

INTERESTING FACTS: Name derived from 1736 pestilence in Angoumois Province, France. Called “Fly Weevil” in America. Cold winters kill it easily. All cereal grains may be effected (sic) by it. A female moth of the 1st generation in May is capable of laying 843, 750 eggs by the third generation in September. Where the corn shuck is either loosely developed at the tips or damaged by smut, corn ear worm, or other insects, the moth can easily reach the kernel and lay its eggs.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Widely distributed. Serious pest of grains.


Codling Moth. Carpocapsa pomonella.

DESCRIPTION: Color – Moth’s front wings are of a brownish gray color and are crossed with lines of gray scales, giving the appearance of watered silk. At the tips of the wings, there is a large brown spot, in which are many scales of bronze or gold. The hind wings are grayish brown in color. Maximum spread of wings about 3/4”. Eggs – pearly white. Larvae – pinkish with a black head and 5/8” long. Pupa is yellowish, then changes to brown and later to a bronze color. Locomotion – Moth flies; larvae crawls.

HABITAT: Apple and pear orchards.


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Codling Moth (cont’d)

FOOD: Distinctly an apple worm. It feeds on pears, quinces, and English walnuts.

LIFE CYCLE:- The scalelike eggs 1/2 the size of a pin head, are usually deposited about the time the flower petals fall on the leaves (giving them a blistered effect) of the apple tree. The female moth lays 5 to 6 dozen eggs, which completes her work. The next week, the tiny wormlike larva crawls in the blossom and of the apple; spending the next 33 days living on the inside. It develops 3 pair of true legs with sharp, single claws; then it bores its way out of the green apple and lets itself down to the ground by means on a silk thread spun from its mouth. Beneath the loose bark of the trees, it finds shelter and there spins a cocoon of white silk where it pupates. The 2nd generation pupates thru the winter. 

INTERESTING FACTS:- Summer varieties of apples more wormy than late varieties. Takes worm 1 1/2 hours to burrow into fruit. Besides the true legs; the 3, 4, 5, and 6th segments of the abdomen are each furnished with a pair of fleshy prolegs and the hind segment has a prop-leg. Those fleshy legs carry the long body of the caterpillar. The 3 pairs of frong legs are the ones from which develop the legs of the moth.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION:- During winter, Nuthatches, Woodpeckers, and Chickadees destroy larva in great numbers. Commercial value of fruit lost.


Silkworm. Bombyx mori

DESCRIPTION:- A small, cream colored moth has several indistinct brown lines on the forewings and broadly feathered antennae. 300 cream white, pin head shaped eggs are laid on strips of muslin, paper or on mulberry leaves. The baby silk worm is 1/16” long, dark in color and covered with fine silken hair, while mature caterpillar is 3 in. long, very smooth and yellowish white in color. The larva has a cylindrical body composed of 12 rings; each of the first three has a pair of jointed legs, and the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and 12th each bears a pair of false legs, which later disappear. There are 9 breathing pores along each side of body.

HABITAT:- In the wild state found on the mulberry trees. Today, it has been domesticated. FOOD:- Baby worm pierces the mulberry leaf and sucks the sap. Adult eats white mulberry leaves and osage orange leaves.

LIFE CYCLE:- The silkworm has but one generation each year. There are the phases: the first, 3 months of activity; the second, 5 months of inactivity; the third, active from February to hatching. The tiny larvae begin to eat as soon as they are hatched. Within 2 months they have molted 4 times. All this time, the larva has been filling two large sacs that run along the sides of its body with a sticky fluid. A tiny stream issues from its lower lip or the spinneret which is drawn out into a beautiful fine strand of silk. Strands from the two sacs are joined in one thread. With this material, in 3 to 4 days the silkworm weaves a cocoon in the shape of a peanut shell. In 15 days, a moth emerges which lives only a few days.

INTERESTING FACTS:- It takes from 130-140 pounds of cocoons to yield 12 pounds of raw silk. Silkworm works its head is a figure 8 loop, weaving about 400 to 800 yards of thread around the cocoon. Year 1700 B.C., the 3rd Emperor of China’s wife, then 14 years old, began the cultivation of wild silkworms.

REVELATION TO CONSERVATION:- Difficult to produce in the United States.


Cabbage Worm. Pieres rapae

DESCRIPTION:- The 1 1/4” cabbage worm is velvety green with tiny black dots, a faint yellow stripe down the middle of the back and a row of yellow spots along each side in line with the breathing pores. The butterfly has a wing expanse of nearly 2”. It is white marked with black near the tips of the forewings. Eggs are spindle shaped, a pale yellowish color and strongly ribbed. They are found singly on the wunder side of the outer leaves of cabbages. The chrysalis is 2/4” long, varies in color from dirty gray to yellow, green and dark gray. Locomotion, adults fly; larvae crawl.

HABITAT:- Cabbages and related crops. FOOD:- Cabbages, cauliflower, radishes, kale, turnips and mustard. Butterflies sip the nectar of flowers.

LIFE CYCLE:- The caterpillar, which hatches from the egg, eats greedily and matures in from 10 to 14 days. It molts 4 times; the 1st molt in 2 days, the 2nd, in 3 days and the 3rd and 4th, in 1-2 days. Sometimes the last takes 4-5 days. In summer, the chrysalis period lasts from 7 to 12 days. The period of development covers between 22 to 42 days.

INTERESTING FACTS:- It is a serious menace to cabbage and related crops. Introduced into America is 1856.


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RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Butterflies appear early in March. The natural enemies are Ichneuman Fly, Chalcis Fly, Paper Wasps, Ambush Bug, and such birds; as, Chipping Sparrows, English Sparrows, and House Wrens. Number of the chrysalids were reduced more than 90% by birds during one winter.


House Fly. Musca domestica.

DESCRIPTION: Fly has but 2 wings, which are transparent, with prominent lengthwise veins. Instead of hind wings, it has 2 small rodlike organs which help the insect balance itself. Head of fly small with two wonderful eyes. The thorax, striped black and white, has on its lower side, 3 pairs of legs. The abdomen, consists of 5 segments and is covered with stiff hairs. Fly clings to the ceiling with 2 little pads below the claws, which are covered with hairs that, at the tips, excrete a sticky fluid. Pupa – White to dark and bean shaped. Eggs – Oval, white about 1/20” long. Locomotion – Adults fly or crawl; larvae, crawl. HABITAT: Houses, barns, and unclean places. FOOD: From filth to most delicate food.

LIFE CYCLE: The house fly’s 100 to 200 eggs are laid in horse manure. After a few hours they hatch into slender, pointed, white maggots which feed upon the excrement. After 5 or 6 days, the larval skin thickens, turns brown. It remains 5 days in the pupal stage, then the skin bursts open and the full-grown fly appears.

INTERESTING FACTS: Its antennae are all the nose it has. At the tip of the mouth are 2 flaps which can rasp a substance so as to set free the juices and above this there is a tube through which the juices are drawn to the stomach. 

OTHER SPECIES: Biting Stable Fly, has mouth parts for piecing skin and sucking blood. Cluster Fly, stays in groups in cold weather. Has a covering of fine yellow hairs. Bluebottle Fly, Black Blowflies, and Green-bottle Fly, metallic greenish or bluish color. Breed in decaying animal matter. Lesser House Fly male is common.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Obnoxiously abundant. Carrier of contagious diseases.


Japanese Beetle. Popilla japonica.

DESCRIPTION: Adult is 5/16-7/16” long. Broad, oval in shape, moderately convex and shining; the upper surface is flattened without hairs or scales. The color is bright, metallic green, except most of wing covers, which are coppery brown. The under surface of the body is covered with short, grayish hairs. The wings, not entirely covering the abdomen, expose a row of 5 lateral and 2 posterior marginal spots of white hairs. Pupa-white, later rusty brown or tan. Larva is about 1/16” long. Eggs are oval 1/16” in diameter; white to a creamy color. HABITAT: Grubs live in the soil; adults are found on low growing plants and shade trees. Rare in Ohio. FOOD: Larva feeds on the fine rootlets and decomposed plants. Beetles feed on low growing plants; such as, smartweed, and beans; on the foliage and fruit of trees; such as, sassafras, elder, and sweet cherries; on grapes, corn, and clover.

LIFE CYCLE: The total life cycle of the Japanese Beetle is one year. 5/6 of this time is spent in the soil as an egg, larva or pupa. Passing the winter in the soil at the depth of 2-4”, the larva becomes active in April, and changes to pre-pupal stage in May. In from 10 days to 3 weeks, the larva transforms to a pupa and the adult emerges in about 2 weeks from the ground. The life of an individual beetle varies from 1 to 10 weeks. The female beetle enters the soil late in the afternoon and deposits several eggs in the ground during the night. In all 30-50 eggs are deposited.

INTERESTING FACTS: Native to Japan. Was discovered in Riverton, New Jersey, 1916. Japanese Beetle begins to feed on the upper and outer foliage and works downward. Often defoliates entirely the larger shade and timber trees; winds and storms play some part in the dispersion.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Among the natural enemies of the Japanese Beetle are the toad, birds; such as, Purple Grackle, Kingbird, Cardinal, Meadowlark, and Pheasant. Skunk and Mole feed on the grub.


Potato Beetle. Leptinotarsa decimlineata.

DESCRIPTION: The head, bright orange; black compound eyes as well as 3 simple eyes on top; short, pointed antennae. The thoracic shield is orange, ornamented with black. Longitudinally, each wing cover has 5 yellow and 5 black stripes. Eggs – yellow cones 1/14” long. Larva is orange or yellow with black dots along the side. Locomotion – Adults fly; larvae crawl. HABITAT: Potato plants. FOOD: Adult and larva eat potato plant tissue and leaves.

LIFE CYCLE: Same adult beetles or pupae, winter 1’ beneath the surface of the soil.


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Potato Beetle. (continued)

As soon as the potato plants appear the mother beetle comes out and begins laying eggs, in masses of about 500 on the under side of the leaves. In about a week, there hatches from the eggs, little humpbacked larvae, which grow rapidly requiring from 16 days to 3 weeks to complete their growth. It then descends into the earth where it remains 1 or 2 weeks, according to the temperature, until it becomes an adult. Usually, there are 2-3 generations a summer.

INTERESTING FACTS: One of the few insects pests native to America. It formerly fed upon the sandbur in the region of Colorado, Arizona, and Mexico. By 1879 has spread over 1/3 of the United States. The beetle has multiplied faster than the parasites. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Natural enemies, ladybird beetles, toads, snakes, birds; such as, Quails, Robins, Crows, Grouse, and Thrushes. Red-breasted Grosbeak called “Potato Bug Bird” by Pennsylvania farmers.


Bean Weevil. Mylabris obtectus.

DESCRITPION: It is black, yet appears grayish yellow; abdomen dull reddish-brown; antennae black, the apical half and 4 basal joints reddish; legs reddish brown, underside of hind femur black. Has no notch on the sides of the pronotum, each hind femur has 2 fine teeth in addition to a larger one near the tip. Size – 1/8”. Locomotion – Adults fly or walk; larvae crawl or bore.

HABITAT: Garden beans. FOOD: Foliage and the inside of the bean.

LIFE CYCLE: In the spring, the adults escape, from the beans in the storage or are taken to the field in the seeds which are planted. Here they feed on the foliage. The female makes tiny holes in the pods in which she deposits the eggs. The young grub hatches and crawls around in the pod until it finds a small bean. It enters thru a very small hole, loses its eyes and legs and starts feeding within the bean. 26 eggs laid by one female a day, 85 eggs laid during her life. In hot weather eggs batch in 5 days; in cooler weather, takes 20 day; larva stage, 11-42 days; full-grown pupa 5-18 days; life cycle, therefor is from 3-12 weeks. There are from 2-6 generations a season.

INTERESTING FACTS: Found in all parts of the world.

OTHER SPECIES: Four-spotted Bean Weevil is a trifle larger than Mylabris. It has a slender body with 4 black spots on wing covers, glues small white eggs to seeds. Broad-bean Weevil 1/5” long and has narrow thorax.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The warmer the climate, the greater the number of generations and the consequent damage done by the grubs. Bean growth stunted. Beans not usuable. Stored beans and are infested.


Dragon Fly. Odonata anisoptera.

DESCRIPTION: Water insects with 4 large, gauzelike wings that give it rapid and powerful flight. Its great beadlike, compound eyes are capable of perceiving motion at a distance of 60’. The nymph is a dingy little creature with 6 queer, spiderlike legs and no wings. The nymph has an amazing lower lip. This is so large that it covers the lower part of the face like a mask and when folded back reaches down between the front legs, this is in reality a grappling organ with hooks and spines for holding prey. There is an enlargement of the rear end of the alimentary canal in the walls of which tracheae or breathing tubes extend in all directions. The nymph draws water into this cavity and then expels it, thus bathing the tracheae with the air mixed with water and purifying the air within them. This act serves as a method of swimming as well as breathing.

HABITAT: Adults live near the water. Larvae are found in water and on bottom of ponds.

FOOD: Adult eats mosquitoes and flies. Larvae eat water insects, worms, snails, tadpoles, and small fish.

LIFE CYCLE: Mate in flight. Eggs are laid on the water, some are deposited while the female is in motion. The young nymph which hatches in 5-15 days bears bi resemblance to its glittering parents. From 1 yr. to 5 yrs, according to the species, the nymph remains in the water. Nymphs grow by shedding the skin as fast as it becomes too small and when finally ready to emerge they crawl upon some object out of the water, and molt for the last time and are then swift creatures of the air.

INTERESTING FACTS: The dragon-fly extends both wings, as if in flight, while it basks in the sun. Called “Mule Killers”, “Snake Doctors,” “Mosquito Hawks.”


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Mosquito. Culex pipiens.

DESCRIPTION: Distinguished from other two-winged flies (1) by the presence of scales on its wings, on parts of its head, body and appendages; (2) by costal vein which runs completely around the wing (3) by the palpi which project forward, and are not pendulous. The mouth parts of the adult female are of the piercing and sucking type while the male has only the latter form. The various mouth parts are labium, two mandibles, two maxillae, hypopharynx and labium, which are compressed into a beak that projects forward and downward from the lower part of the head. The labium is the piercing tool of the mosquito’s outfit. When the drill is pressed against the skin the outer case bends back, exposing the sharp probes and saws. The saliva of the mosquito is injected into the wound from the tip of the hypopharynx, and the blood of the victim is sucked up by the female to the mouth through the labrohypo-pharngeal tube. The male has large feathering antennae, which serve as ears. The wings of the female will not carry her more than two or three hundred feet away. Locomotion – Adults fly; larvae wriggle; pupae tumble.

HABITAT: Houses, parks, lawns, marshes, stagnant pools, ponds, rain barrels, empty cans.

FOOD: Males suck plant juices; females suck blood and plant juices. Larvae eat minute fragments of vegetable matter.

LIFE CYCLE: Early in the morning, in irregular raft-shaped clusters, 100 to almost 300 eggs are laid on the surfaces of the water. The eggs, 0.7mm. long and 0.16 mm. in diameter at the base, stand on end in from six to thirteenth longitudinal rows, are gray-brown above and silvery white below. The head of the larvae is large, the antennae are long and slender. The sides of the body are furnished with stiff bristles which waft food particles; such as, organic matter and micro-organisms into its mouth. From next to the last segment of the abdomen, there protrudes a long tube which is the breathing tube. The openings in the breathing tubes of the wrigglers are protected by oily plates, which do not permit water to pass. In about 7 days, after having shed its skin four times, the larvae changes into the pupa. The pupa seems to be all head and thorax, with a slender curved abdomen and with two large flaps at the end of the abdomen, which assist it in swimming. Two breathing tubes arise from the thorax. Pupation follows for a few days, after which the adult appears through a split down the back of the skin.

INTERESTING FACTS: Song produced by vibrations in the large trachea during respiration. Oil poured on the surface of water in breeding places clogs the air tubes of wrigglers. 125 species of mosquitoes are found in North America.

OTHER SPECIES: Anopheles-Malaria carrier. Wings are marked with dark spots. When resting it is found in a tipped-up position, making an acute angle. Yellow Fever Mosquito (Aedes aegypit) is small, with silvery lines along the back of the thorax; its legs are banded with white. Apparently 12 days is required after feeding on a yellow fever patient before the mosquito is able to transmit the organism causing the disease.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Furnish food for aquatic insect eaters.


Termites. Reticulitermes flavipes.

DESCRIPTION: Termites are native insects which originally inhabited our forests. Like other insects, the termite has 6 legs; the body has three segments, head, thorax and abdomen. Head bears a pair of antennae, a pair of mandibles and other mouth parts; the thorax has three segments which bear single legs; the abdomen consists of 9 segments. A thin horny, outer covering, which is shed or molted at various times during development to allog (sic) for increases in size and changes in structure. The termites found in Ohio are subterranean in habit, which means that they either live in the ground, or must have ground contact and moisture. The sterile workers are grayish white, usually about 1/5 inch long, soft bodied with pale round heads, inconspicuous jaws, wingless and blind. Soldiers are similar to workers except that they have a yellowish white abdomen and a very large, hard, rectangular, brown head with grotesquely toothed and strong jaws which act as pinchers and are used to protect the nest. The soldiers squirt a colorless liquid which seems to paralyze the victim by sticking its legs and other body parts together so that it is powerless to move. The complementary king dies before winter; the mates live on widowed for


66-A
Termites (Continued)

another summer. Termites that appear in the open are blackish or brownish, slender, elongate; have large, black compound eyes and4 semi-transparent wings on the first two segments, extending far beyond the body. They do not fly far from the place of emergence but soon shed their wings and seek a new place to be established. Locomotion: Adults fly – crawl after wings drop off.

HABITAT: The dwelling of the colony consists either of intercommunicating cavities within wood or of connecting passage ways within both in the ground and the wood.

FOOD: Pure cellulose such as purified filter paper as well as the cellulose from either dead or living vegetation. All forms develop from same type of eggs. About 80,000 eggs are laid each day for a considerable period during the warm months in colonies out of doors. In infested buildings artificially heated, where an even temperature is maintained, the insects are active and may lay eggs every month of the year. The number of eggs laid depends on age of mature termites.

INTERESTING FACTS: More than 1200 known species. Of these, some fifty are known to live in the United States. Termites as a group are very ancient. Fossil termites have been found in deposits known to be millions of years old. Ventilating system used in colony, copied by man to improve known system of fentilation.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Termites cause serious injury to living trees, shrubs, nursery stock and grape vines. Termites injure a great variety of flowers that are perennial and have woody stalks. It can be prevented by clean cultural methods, deep fall plowing and the use of insecticides.


Dobson Fly.  Coryadalis Cormita

DESCRIPTION: The mandibles of the male are nearly an inch long, slender and somewhat curved; those of the female are short and stout. The distance from tip to tip of the wings when these are extended may be over five inches. Wings are rather narrow, have many prominent veins and are thin in texture and without markings. Size – 2” to 3” long. A full grown larva is at least 3” long, 1/2” wide. The head has 2 strong biting jaws and the tail has 2 hooks for attaching to stones or other objects. In color it is dark grayish brown. The body is flat, and the skin thick and very tough. Has six legs. Along each side of the body is a row of fleshy projections with short, white, hairlike tufts between. These projections are breathing organs. Color – black. Pupae – Soft bodied, yellowish white. Shows the adult organ rather plainly.

HABITAT: Larvae found under stones in swift-flowing shallow streams.

FOOD: Larva feed on the nymphs of stone flies and other aquatic insects.

LIFE CYCLE: From two to three thousand chalk-white (1/20” long) eggs are laid under stones, rocks or on leaves of overhanging bushes. When the young hatch, they fall into the water and remain there for nearly three years. The full-grown larva then makes a call under some stone close to the stream and pupates for about a month after which the adult escapes.

INTERESTING FACTS: Called by 16 different names; such as: “Dobson hell devil,” “Crawler”, “helldiver.” One of the largest insects attracted to light. (aside from large moths) Wounds inflicted by the jaws are not dangerous. Eggs are often found on wharves and boats and are called “barge spooter” by watermen.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Highly prized bait of bass fishermen. Food for fish. Control multiplication of other insects. Widely distributed.


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MAMMALS

Man’s natural desire to kill either for food, for safety, or for sport the wild creatures about him has been manifest throughout countless ages. His one time ignorance in permitting this instinct to assert itself, improperly, resulted so disastrously in many instances that devastation and famine followed. It was only after the most costly experiences that man has learned that any undue interference with the balance of nature would react most unfavorably to his plans, even to the extent of affecting his supply of food, shelter, and clothing.

All creatures, when properly controlled, have their rightful place in the scheme of nature. Before the White Man settled Ohio, and even for some time afterwards, a great assemblage of animal life, and the necessary natural food to sustain it, were abundant. There was an almost perfect balance between this beneficial and destructive varieties of mammals. Predators, even though plentiful, did not seriously deplete the ranks of the more beneficial creatures, and the Indian, no doubt, took an even toll of both good and bed forms. 

When the White Man came, however, conditions changed materially. Game became a principal food, and also furnished material for wearing apparel. Deer hides provided much clothing for the early settlers, and from them were made buckskin jackets, moccasins, etc. Raccoon pelts were highly prized and for a long time coonskin caps were in vogue among the early pioneers. As population increased and communities developed, the needs for additional food and clothing were imperative. As a result, a heavy toll was taken, chiefly of the more valuable creatures. Forests were cut down to provide material for dwellings and for cleared areas upon which to raise crops. Little by little, much valuable food and cover for the wild life were destroyed. Such magnificent creatures, as, the bison, were gradually forced westward; packs of gray wolves and solitary panthers soon disappeared.

By this time, the state was fairly well settled, and man, once established and assured of a fair livelihood, looked for ways and means of deriving a profit from the vast resources round about him. Thus many pioneers began to kill game for market purpose, and as their greed grew they even led the Indian to kill for them, by offering in exchange various cheap trinkets so highly prized by the Red Man. “Firewater” (whiskey) often served as a medium of exchange for game and fur in later days.

In no undertaking is there greater need for the knowledge that research and experimentation alone can supply, then in our efforts to restore and perpetuate valuable forms of wild life that have been depleted. In a broad sense, the greatest damage to the resources has been done by lack of knowledge and foresight. If our forefathers could have had a clearer perception of the importance and the vital requirements of the native game species of North America, many of the most perplexing problems now would never have developed.

The study of mammals is difficult as most mammals are nocturnal while the diurnal ones in the majority of cases, are shy and elusive. Mammals hold a certain relationship to the press in which they live. It is easy to see how the improper control of any one species will react unfavorably upon the growth of crops, fruit trees, forests, and other vegetation. An animal is successful when it fits the environment.


INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

The economic importance of mammals.
Methods used in the conservation of wild animal life.
Learn the distinguishing characteristics of the following orders of mammals: rodents, ungulates, carnivores, and primates.
Report on interesting local animals and their habits.
Collect pictures of extinct animals. Report on various extinct mammals.
Construct a beaver dam on the sand table.
Give adaptations of mammals for swimming, flying, climbing, jumping, walking, running, fighting, burrowing, and grasping.
Show various modifications of the body covering of the mammals.
Show modifications of the teeth for catching prey, for gnawing, and grinding.
Name the local animals that are useful. Name the ones that are harmful.
List the wild animals found in your vicinity.
List the important fur bearing animals: seal, muskrat, skunk, etc.
Report on the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey relative to the destruction of dangerous and predatory animals.


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(Illustration)


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Muskrat. Ondatra zibethica zibethica.

DESCRIPTION: In North America, it is the largest sized member of the rat family. It is 12” to 15” long, without tail which is 8” to 10” long. The long black tail is flat, scaly, and sparsely haired. The muskrat is heavier than the rat. Its upperparts are chestnut brown in color. Pelage dense and composed of 2 types of hair – a close water proof under fur and longer, glistening guard-hairs. Have dark brown feet, and only the hind ones partially webbed. Ears are small and located far back on the head. 

HABITAT: Is in or near fresh water. Their burrows open just beneath the surface of the water and extend back into the bank sometimes as far as twenty feet. The passages are crooked and lead to a large gallery which is the muskrat’s home. From this chamber, a narrow passage leads to the ground surface which is among grass and weeds (this is for ventilation).

FOOD: Roots, bulbs, and foliage of water plants, sometimes garden vegetables, standing grain, also fish and fresh water mussels.

BREEDING: Ordinarily, the muskrat has several litters yearly, each of which, have from three to ten young. Young are born in burrows and remain in this nest until half grown.

INTERESTING FACTS: The animal is an expert swimmer and diver. There is a musky odor given off by the glands from which this animal derives its name. He does not hibernate, yet stores up food for winter. The flesh of this animal is eaten by the Indians. Flavor somewhat resembles the duck; in spring and summer, the flesh is so scented with musk it is not good to eat. Seton says – “A well cooked muskrat is preferable is ordinary Canvasback Duck.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It is valuable because of its fur. When the long guardhairs are plucked, the fur somewhat resembles the underfur of the Fur Seal. The muskrat is one of the few mammals that has not become scarce since the land has been brought under cultivation. These animals have sometimes tunneled into banks and dams which cause them to give way. Muskrats do interfere with the fish and their spawning beds.


Meadow Mouse. Microtus pennsulvanicus. Ord.

DESCRIPTION: One of the commonest of our small mammals, varying in color from chestnut brown to yellowish chestnut, sprinkled with black along the back. Underparts grayish brown washed with cinnamon. A medium sized mouse about 7” long with long, tail are short; tail covered with short hairs; feet are brown.

HABITAT: Grassy meadows, low fertile lands, banks of streams, rank growth of swamps, marshes, borders of damp woodlands, high mountains and open fields. Well defined runways with the nest at the end of the tunnel. Nest is lined with cat-tail down and silky fluff of milkweed seeds.

FOOD: In the summer, feed upon growing grass, clover, alfalfa, grain, seeds, bulbs, rootcrops and garden vegetables; in the fall, upon grain; in the winter, they gnaw roots and the bark of fruit trees and shrubbery.

BREEDING: Several litters per year consisting of 4 – 11 young.

INTERESTING FACTS: Very hard to distinguish between species. We can differentiate between types by their habitats. Active both day and night. Many times, there have been serious mouse plagues. Their enemies are birds of prey, snakes, weasels, skunks, foxes, and minks.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Very destructive to crops. Do their greatest damage to orchards and shrubbery in the winter when they travel in tunnels under the snow. Food for other fur bearing animals.


Norway Rat. Rattus norvegicus. Erxleben.

DESCRIPTION: Very few people need an introduction to this world wide pest; known as, Brown Rat, House Rat, Wharf Rat, or Barn Rat. It is a good sized rat, 15” to 16” long with large nearly naked ears. The long semi-naked tail is dark on upper side and light on lower side. Coarse pelage – grayish brown on upperparts and underparts, ashy.

HABITAT: No other 4 footed animal can be found in so many places as the rat. Sewers, holes in the ground, ship docks, mines, dwellings, stores, warehouses, open fields, hollow wells of buildings and private homes furnish them shelter. Their nests are built of soft warm masses of fibrous materials such as; cotton, wool, or rags out into shreds. They frequently live under filthy conditions, and thus become a carrier of


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Norway Rat. (Continued)

disease. While thriving in cities and along wharves, they also have adapted themselves to less inhabited districts; such as, fields and busy areas.

FOOD: Practically omnivorous: crops of all kinds; grain, game birds, wood, paper, green vegetables, meat, and eggs.

BREEDING: Prolific – a female rat can produce six or more litters per year, averaging ten young per litter. They breed rapidly, especially when there is plenty of food.

INTERESTING FACTS: They are active both day and night. Their long whiskers serve as feelers for their rapid travel. No other four-footed mammal causes as much trouble as the common rats. Because of its size, strength, and ferocity, this rat has driven out and killed off black rats. Norway Rats fight viciously, killing each other; have been known to attack young calves and pigs, also human beings. They are very destructive to property and crops. They are the carriers of organisms that produce bubonic and pneumonic plague in men, trichinosis in swine and tuberculosis in poultry.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Causes thousands of dollars damage yearly to farm crops, poultry, and game birds. Carries diseases, damages buildings, stores, and hotels. Rats can be exterminated by destroying their homes and breeding places. A state wide clean up campaign should be waged. These rats have many enemies who take great numbers of them during a year. Hawks, owls, snakes, weasels, cats, dogs, foxes are all enemies.


Large Weasel. Mustela noveboracensis. Emmans

DESCRIPTION: A small predatory mammal which may be distringuished from others of the same family by its long, slender body. Male – about 16” long (including tail). Female considerably smaller. Pelage is composed of soft, close underfur and long, hard outer hairs; upper parts dark, rich brown; under parts white. In winter, the pelage is white except for the tail which has a black tip (about 1/3 its length). It is intensely active and bloodthirsty. Has a very keen sense of smell, sight and hearing. Emits a very powerful and disagreeable odor when attacked. Snarls and hisses at enemies. 

HABITAT: A great variety of places: woods, open fields, underground burrows, rocky ledges, hollow stumps, and farm buildings.

FOOD: Almost every kind of small rodent and bird living in their vicinity. In summer time, they eat many insects; but, so far as known, no vegetable food is eaten at any time.

BREEDING: There is only one brood of young, each year, 4-8 in number. They are born in a nest of dry leaves and grasses which is under a stump or a burrow in a bank. Male assists in caring for offspring. 

INTERESTING FACTS: They do not fear men or enemy, making them easy prey. They are fighters with a desire to kill. Often kill more than they can eat. They suck blood from victim’s neck. Have been known to kill thirty chickens in one night. Very skillful in jumping from one tree to another. Can be tamed for pets.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The white fur in winter is rare and valuable as ermine for coats and other wraps. Destroys harmful insects and helps control multiplication of smaller pests as: rats and mice. Very destructive to poultry.


Big Brown Mink. Lustreola vison mink. Peale and Beauvois

DESCRIPTION: The mink is merely a large weasel of somewhat specialized habits. These animals have long, slender bodies and short legs. They are larger than weasels, more robust, have bushier tails, darker in coloration and partly webbed feet. The female mink is smaller than the male which is around 20” long, and weighs about 2 lbs. Their color is a rich, chocolate brown with a white spot under chin and sometimes on chest.

HABITAT: Found in forests or out on plains in the vicinity of streams or standing water. The den may be a burrow in a bank, under logs, in rocks or similar places.

FOOD: Much of the time they live in and about the water, consequently, they feed on fish, forgs, crayfish, muskrats, also squirrels, rabbits, mice and sometimes poultry.

BREEDING: They mate in February or March and young are born in April or May, a litter usually consists of 4-10 young; only one brood a season.

INTERESTING FACTS: The darker the fur, the more valuable. If the fur were not so valuable, there would be more mink, as they are successful in avoiding their natural enemies. He odor given off by minks when greatly excited is more powerful and dis-

71
Big Brown Mink. (Continued)

agreeable to some people than the musk of the skunk. The mink is a very good ratter going into their holes and killing whole families. He is also bloodthirsty, although not as much as the weasel.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable for furs. Destroyer of rats.


Skunk. Mephitis nigra. Peale and Beauvois

DESCRIPTION: One of our most interesting mammals is the skunk. It is a very attractive animal with an obnoxious odor. Its fur is black with white stripes on either side which meet at the neck; the tail is black, tipped with white and very bushy; face is black and white; head and ears are small. It resembles a house cat in size (around 2’ long and weighs about 8 lbs.) Claws of forefeet are well developed for diffing. Usually quiet, occasionally growls. 

HABITAT: Often make their abode close to dwellings of man. Their dens are found among rocks, in hollow logs and deserted burrows. The nest is made of grass and leaves at end of burrow.

FOOD: Either animal or vegetable. They feed largely on insects, snakes, frogs, toads, salamanders, mice, etc.

BREEDING: In April on May the female skunk brings forth 4-6 young. Only one brood a year.

INTERESTING FACTS: The term “Polecat” which is applied to the skunk belongs to a related animal of Europe and Asia. Animals fear neither man nor beast, because of their offensive odor. Make very amusing and gentle pets if taken when young. They burrow and hibernate during winter. However, the ones in Ohio come out of hibernation during winter. Mostly nocturnal in habits.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Fur pelts used for clothing. Benefit farmers by destroying large numbers of mice, grasshoppers, and beetles. Skunk oil used for croup and asthma. 


Raccoon. Procyon lotor. L.

DESCRIPTION: Sexes colored alike; each has some seasonal variation. Brownish gray, becoming yellowish on the back, paler gray underneath; on all upper parts, long hairs are black tipped, and on the under parts, they are white tipped. Black patch on each cheek, joining narrow blackish stripe which runs from nose to the dark color of the forehead. Whitish band above each eye, lower back part of ear black, joining a black patch on the neck behind the ear. Tail beginning with the tip has 6-7 rings of very dark brown or black bushy fur on a pale yellowish background. Measurements – Total length about 30 inches from tip of nose to tip of tail (which is 10 inches long); weighs from 15-25 lbs. Other characteristics – Relative of the beaver – flat-footed, stout, clumsy body, nose long and pointed, ears large, hair coarse. When seen alive the raccoon is easily distinguished by its size, black mask on its face, and its bushy tail with black rings.

HABITAT: Lives along banks of streams and marshes, and in hardwood regions. Home is usually found in the hollow of a large tree. Raccoons climb readily and are not found away from trees or bushes. Night prowlers; stay near water. Hibernates in winter.

FOOD: Omnivorous. Frogs, fish, fowl, reptiles, insects, crayfish, mussels, small mammals, birds, eggs, fruits, nuts, grains, vegetables – greedy appetite for green corn.

BREEDING: Mate in February. Gestation two months. Young are born in April and May. One brood yearly. Number from 3-6.

INTERESTING FACTS: Raccoons will swim fearlessly and well to escape danger but are found only in water in which they can wade. Usually wash food before eating it. Take sun baths on high limbs. They make good pets if taken young. They are tenacious scrappers. Footprints are similar to a child’s. In early pioneer days, the raccoon fur was used for coats, robes, and “coonskin” caps. The tail was left on these caps for decoration. The raccoon is a slow runner, and takes to a tree when chased by hunting dogs.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: A good game and fur bearing animal. A popular beast of the chase. Look for it where big timber and water abound. 


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Opossum. Didelphis Virginians. Kerr.

DESCRIPTION: The Virginia opossum, about the size of a house car (around 33” long), is a dusky grayish color, dark hairs are mixed with white to give a grizzled appearance; head whitish to yellowish; top of head and face black; ears black with yellow spot on upper edge. Piglike snout; naked ears and long, hairless, prehensile tail. Toes sharply clawed – one hind toe, adapted for grasping. Foot prints show every toe, distinctly; different from any other mammal. 

HABITAT: Frequent streams, swamps and other lowlands. They have their dens in hollow trees, roots of trees or in abandoned ground dens, where they can hide away by day. Nest is composed of dry grass or leaves.

FOOD: Animal or plant material that is edible. Fruits are eaten in fall. Carrion is taken, including domestic animals.

BREEDING: Usually only one litter is born a year consisting of 5-14 young, which, as soon as they are born, crawl to their mother’s pouch, a fur-lined pocket on the belly. Where they remain attached to the nipples, the pouch being closed for a fortnight.

INTERESTING FACTS: Only North American order of marsupials; which means young are carried by mother in fur-lined pouch opening along the lower abdomen, until their development is complete. Chiefly nocturnal, largely arboreal; and often feign death when encountered – hence the expression, “playing possum”. Opposum is able to support his weight by his tail. Silent animal, has no call note. Very slow, heavy and awkward gait when walking on ground. Very solitary. Considered most stupid animal in woods. Submits very readily to domestication if captured.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable for its fur. Helps destroy cotton rats, field rats and many insects. A favorite game animal in the south; also favorite meat dish. Has been used considerably in songs and folk lore of the southern negroes. Their peculiarities have excited so much interest that it has become one of the most widely known of American animals.


Conttontail Rabbit. Sylivilagus floridanus mearns. Allen

DESCRIPTION: Cottontails are distinctly smaller than most of the American hares, averaging from 2-3 lbs., in weight. Pelage full and soft; brownish above and white underneath. An excellent example of protective coloration. Both sexes colored alike. Ears long, tail short with conspicuous white underside which shows when it runs – hence the name cottontail. Hind legs longs, but not so well developed as the Jack Rabbits. 

HABITAT: Especially common about the brushy borders of cultivated lands throughout the country; and in fertile, brush grown areas of foothills and valleys. Nest is a small depression in the ground concealed by dead leaves; unless growth is thin and shelter is scarce, then the cottontail occupies burrows in the ground. Nest is made of dead grass and lined with fur from the mother’s body.

FOOD: A great variety of greens; such as, vegetation, grasses, foliage, bark, etc.

BREEDING: During spring and summer several litters appear, consisting of 2-6 in a brood.

INTERESTING FACTS: When chased, these animals take refuge in the first hole they can reach. Tularemia is one of the most common diseases of rabbits and most generally fatal; may be contracted by man. Cottontails live alone, rarely ever are seen together. Mainly nocturnal. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable as food to man. Most numerous of the game animals today. Pelts used to make sealine fur (imitation seal) for clothing. Popular in our folklore stories for children. Rabbits should not be hunted in Ohio before October 15th.


Southern Gray Squirrel. Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis. Gmelin.

DESCRIPTION: So well known, it hardly needs to be described. Gray with a rusty tinge – sometimes almost black. Sexes colored alike. Cheeks, muzzle, ears and upper-parts of paws often nearly tan. Throat, underside legs, and all underparts are white. Long fluffy, white-tipped tail, as gray as the body; is beautiful, graceful and active. It is a very excellent climber, racing through the trees by making long leaps. Has several cell notes; a loud, husky bark and a whinning whisper.


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Southern Gray Squirrel. (Continued)

HABITAT: Yards, parks, and woods. Their nest is made in hollow trees or built in tops of trees. The outside of nests are like crow’s nests, but more bulky and show dead leaves; the foundation is small sticks, surrounded by leaves and lined with shreds of bark, moss and other soft materials.

FOOD: Mainly of vegetable nature; such as, nuts, fruits, buds, seeds, grains, etc., but some animal food; such as, insects and their larvae, young birds, eggs, etc.

BREEDING: They often rear two litter yearly, first litter born in March or April; second in September. A brood usually has 4-6 young. Mother is very devoted. Gray squirrel is not full-grown until two years old.

INTERESTING FACTS: Shows highest development of tree inhabitants. Has very keen sense of smell. Is active, gregarious and sociable. Does not hibernate – but stores food for winter in holes in trees and hiding places on ground. Diurnal in habit. During early settlement of the country, the gray squirrel migrated by thousands from one part to another.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Beautiful and interesting animal. Good for food. Fur used for clothing. A good game animal.


Fox Squirrel. Sciurus niger rufiventer. Geoffrey

DESCRIPTION: Largest of North American tree squirrels and most variable in color. About twice the size of the gray squirrel. Although color varies, it is usually tawny brown grizzled with gray, above and pale rufous or yellowish brown below; nose and ears never white; tail mixes black and tiny rufous. Length is 21”. It has a hoarse, bark calling note.

HABITAT: Trees, woodland, parks and upland woods. They make their homes in knot holes and hollows in tree trunks. The outside nest, for warm weather, is made of sticks and leaves placed high among branches of trees. For cold weather, and to escape enemies, they make an inside nest.

FOOD: Spend much time on the ground looking for food; such as, nuts, seeds, fruits, mushrooms, insects, birds, bird eggs, and other flesh food when available.

BREEDING: One litter born in March or April and numbers, from 2-4. No definite evidence of a second litter.

INTERESTING FACTS: They become fatter than most squirrels and their flesh is not so dry. Number never equaled that of gray squirrels. Active only by day. Store food in hiding places for winter use. They like hickory nuts, beechnuts, walnuts and seeds of pines and cypresses. When danger approaches, they take refuge on ground rather than in tree. Very shy and retiring. Tail highly developed, serves as a parachute for safe landing, a signal flag and a shield in battle. This species more gentle pet than a gray squirrel; but less entertaining. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Game animal and is very appetizing food. Fur pelts used for clothing.


Red Squirrel. Sciurus hudsonicus loquax. Bangs

DESCRIPTION: This squirrel is known to almost every person visiting the forests of Canada and North Eastern United States; by its vivacious, rollicking and impudent manner. Has a very distinct winter and summer coat, but in both, the rusty red prevails. In summer, the upper parts are pale, rusty red, brighter on outer sides of legs and feet. Ears are without tufts, tail less buffy than in winter. Under parts are clear white. In winter, rusty red from top of head to tail; sides olive gray; tail above, yellowish rufous with black bands near top and the very tip which is black. This small, (about 12”), alert squirrel, has a flat, bushy and expressive tail, (the loss of which limits its power of jumping). Voice is a barking, scolding, chattering.

HABITAT: Woods, coniferous forests, especially in spruce, fir or pine trees. It uses holes in ground for places of safety. The nests are located in a variety of situations; made of twigs, leaves, or miss and lined with fibrous bark and other soft materials. Some are in knot holes, hollow trees, or on limbs near trunk. Each


73-A
Red Squirrel. (Continued)

squirrel makes his home for a long period in or about a certain tree.

FOOD: Nuts, seeds, buds, berries, some insects and bird’s eggs.

BREEDING: Breed from April to September. May bear more than one litter a season; 4 – 6 in a brood. Male does not help in caring for young.

INTERESTING FACTS: Have interesting habit of voluntarily swimming streams and lakes, making migrations for better feeding grounds. Diurnal in habit. They do not hibernate, but store nuts, pine and spruce cones, seeds, etc., for winter use. Never seen in such vast numbers as the gray squirrels.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Fur used for clothing. Too small for a good game animal. Very entertaining to watch. Destroy certain insects and birds. Sometimes destructive to fruit. Help scatter seeds of pine trees.


Woodchuck. Marmota monax monax. L. 

DESCRIPTION: A large, terrestrial rodent with heavy-set body and short tail. Head broad and short; nose blunt, ears low, rounded; eyes small; tail well covered with hair, claws strong and suitable for digging. Hair is boarse, long with shorter, softer underfur. Color of upper part is grizzly brown (due to intermixture of whitish, buffy or cinnamon colored hairs). Under part is dark gray. Its only note is a short, shrill whistle which it utters when alarmed.

HABITAT: Fields, grassy hillsides and woodlands. Digs burrows under stone walls, rocks, ledges or even, open grass grown fields. Marked by little mounds of earth at entrance and contain from 20-40 feet of branching galleries, ending in a rounded chamber about 1’ in diameter.

FOOD: Vegetation of various kinds, grass, clover, crops and foliage of native trees.

BREEDING: Mating occurs in March. Litter of 4 or 5 born in April. Young are very small and undeveloped. Do not emerge from den until 6-7 weeks old. Establish themselves in their own burrows in August.

INTERESTING FACTS: Hibernate from November to February or later. So far as Seton knows, the Woodchuck does not drink; but, like the rabbit satisfies his bodily need for liquid with juices of food plants, sprinkled with rain or dew. He is diurnal in habits. Shows courage in meeting his enemies.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Frequently hunted for sport. Their dens are used by other animals that are not so well adapted for digging their own burrows; such as, rabbits, skunks, opossum, etc. Flesh occasionally eaten – but not tasty. Pelts are worthless as fur hides; but are used for lashes, thongs, and pouches.


Mole. Scalopus aquaticus machrinus. Raf. 

DESCRIPTION: Below earth’s surface and sunlight, we find a small sturdy mammal with soft, close fur resembling velvet (may be brushed either backward or forward). It is a reddish brown on upper parts; under parts are paler. Muzzle naked; tail thick and practically naked. Forefeet greatly enlarged and spadelike, always held with outer edge up, front legs extremely short; no neck; no external ear or eye; body short and thick, approximately 6-7” long.

HABITAT: Seldom seen above ground. Known to be present through raised ridges and mounds of earth pushed up from below. Lives in lawns, fields, gardens and forested areas. They dig a burrow from earth’s surface to a dome-shaped chamber about two feet below the ground; from this, many tunnels extend out in different directions – making a complicated fortess.

FOOD: Strictly animal – insects, beetles, larvae and meadow mice.

BREEDING: During spring and summer, probably only have one litter – consisting of 3-5 young.

INTERESTING FACTS: Have interesting habit of molting their skin. This follows a definite sequence; appearing on breast and abdomen first. Chin and throat retain old pelage longest. Demarcation between old and new fur is very obvious. Have been


73-B
Mole. (Continued)

known to tunnel in 25 hours, 104 1/2 feet of main line and branches.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Destroy many insects which are injurious to plants and crops. Fur is sometimes used for clothing. Meadow mice sometimes attack seed corn by utilizing the runways that have been made by moles in reaching corn-hills to secure grubs that attack the seeds.


Striped Gopher. Citellus tridecemlineatus
Tridecemlineatus. Mitchell.

DESCRIPTION: A ground squirrel of small to medium size with conspicuous stripes and spotted color pattern. Body almost as slender as the weasel’s (about 11” long). Ears are small; tail short. Upper parts of body have many alternate longitudinal stripes of dark brown (with light or tinge). These dark stripes have central rows of whitish spots; stripes on neck to shoulders, solid, unbroken by spotting, top of head is very indistinctly striped. Fur of under parts are dusky at base. Have a short, sharp trilling whistle for a call note.

HABITAT: Lives in ground burrows on prairies and grass grown plains.

FOOD: Usually insects; such as, grasshoppers and grubs, also grains, scorns and small rodents.

BREEDING: Mating occurs in spring. A litter usually has 5-13 young, which are born in May or June. No hair on body until 20 days old; eyes open in about a month. Need mother’s care longer than most rodents.

INTERESTING FACTS: It is a very good example of protective coloration; for its brightly colored markings blend so well with the brown earth and plant stems, that when quiet, it is difficult to distinguish.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Because of variety of insects consumed; field mice eaten, the striped gopher serves as a check on destructive insects, weed seeds, and rodents. Farmers often wrongly consider him a pest for he is sometimes destructive of grain crops.


(Illustration)

LEGEND FOR ABOVE MAMMAL TRACKS

(1) Field Mouse (2) Big Brown Rat (3) Muskrat (4) Southern Gray Squirrel (5) Fox Squirrel (6) Red Squirrel (7) Weasel (8) Big Brown Mink (9) Skunk (10) Raccoon (11) Opossum (12) Cottontail Rabbit (13) Common Dog (14) Common Cat.



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THE VALUE OF PEST HUNTS

Pest hunts, like explosives, in the hands of untrained persons are potentially dangerous. The supposed purpose of ‘pest hunts’ is to reduce the population of certain animals or birds which are detrimental to agriculture, to wild life or are a public nuisance. Such objectives are frequently justified, but too often the ‘pest hunt’ goes beyond the above purposes and results in the destruction of valuable species, both from an agricultural and wild life conservation viewpoint.

The average sportsman considers a pest hunt as a means of eradicating woodchucks, foxes, crows, hawks, and owls. The economically important pest, the rat, is seldom recognized, or at least seldom included, in the list of species to be killed. The heading, “Hawks and Owls” covers the proverbial “multitude of sins,” for in Ohio only two hawks and possibly one owl may be classed as destroyers of wild life and domestic fowl. Both of these hawks are quite small, the Cooper’s Hawk (which is fairly common) being about the size of a crow, and the Sharp-shinned Hawk (which is rather uncommon) being a little smaller. It is significant there are six other species of hawks in Ohio which are not destroyers of valuable wild life, and at least one of these, (the most common in the state) the Sparrow Hawk, is a well recognized “mouser” by farmers over Ohio.

Of the seven species of owls recorded for Ohio, only one, the Great Horned Owl (rare in some localities) is recognized as being destructive. Many of our owls such as the Screech Owl and Barn Owl are of value in controlling mice and rats about buildings and in fields. Unfortunately, pole traps set in fields usually capture those species which are most valuable and the sportsman shoots Screech Owls, Barn Owls, and Barred Owls because they are more frequently observed than the Great Horned Owl which frequents deep woods.

The persecution of woodchucks or groundhogs by pest hunters is equally as unwarranted as that of the hawk and owls. Farmers are sometimes justified in taking measures to control woodchucks because of their obvious damage to cultivated crops. However, no sportsmen have an excuse to include this animal on his pest list; his efforts should be to encourage their protection, most of our fur bearing game animals and even game birds utilize the dens which the woodchucks dig.

With few exceptions, all species of predators have their good and bad points. The hawks and owls, which feed chiefly on mice and rats, perform a very valuable service for those interested in producing game birds or agricultural crops, by controlling these rodents.

The damage to game birds, done by different kinds of vermin, depends upon the season of the year, their relative abundance, and the habits of individuals of each species. For example, sparrow hawks frequently take young game birds from rearing fields before these birds are three weeks old. After game birds have reached maturity sparrow hawks can do little or no damage to them. Those species of predators which eat large numbers of eggs are chiefly destructive only during the laying and nesting seasons.

Where foxes and game birds are numerous and rabbits are scarce, foxes will do much more damage to game birds than they would if rabbits were plentiful. If it is difficult or not desirable to control foxes, one of the surest ways of preventing their destroying large numbers of game birds is to increase the rabbit supply.

Many publications have been written for and against conducting pest hunts. Most of those advocating pest hunts are interested  only in the sport, if there is any, in killing so called vermin which are classed as such, on the basis of boyhood memories of an accidental finding of a predacous (sic) bird feeding on a rabbit carcass or other wild life which may have been killed by an automobile or seriously wounded by shotgun wounds during the hunting season. Opposed to this group are a few advocates of pest hunts only under the guidance of experts in wild life management, or no pest hunts at all.

Since most of us are not competent enough to distinguish between beneficial and non-beneficial species, and further are not well enough versed in nature lore to know whether or not our pests hunts are upsetting a natural balance – the safest course to follow is to refrain from participating in pest hunts and to discourage them whenever possible.



75

ROCKS – MINERALS

The earth is very old and its history is one of great change.

Rocks furnish the sole records of the history of the earth before the age of man.

Geologists find the clue to what has taken place in the past, by observing the forces now at work in changing the surface of the earth.

The raw materials of the earth are mostly minerals and rocks. A mineral may be either one of the ninety known elements, or it may be a compound of more than one element, the elements are always combined in the same proportions. Thus pure quartz, (the most common of all the minerals and the base of many rocks) is always a compound of oxygen and silicon in the same proportions. Consequently, one sample of a mineral always has the same proportions as any other sample of the same mineral. Minerals may be either metallic, (iron, copper, gold, mercury, radium, silver, aluminum) or non-metallic, (quartz, lime, feldspar, mica, clay, asbestos).

Rocks are composed of two or more minerals not combined chemically into a compound, but only mixed. The proportions of the minerals composing the rock may vary considerably in the same kind of rock. Thus, a sample of common granite contains three minerals; quartz, feldspar, and mica, but the particles are easily seen to be separate in the granite.

Rocks are divided into three groups:

IGNEOUS: Rock that is formed or produced by the action of heat, such as, granite or basalt. Generally, we have no igneous rocks at the surface in Ohio, a few were left by glaciers. Such materials are found by the drill in northwestern parts of the state of Ohio at depths of from 2800 to 4000 feet.

SEDIMENTARY: Rock composed of fine debris that have been scattered over the earth’s surface by water and wind.

METAMORPHIC: This type of rock can either be igneous or sedimentary rock, that has undergone change due to heat, pressure and water, resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline rock.


IGNEOUS (FIRE FORMED) ROCKS

GRANITE: Carefully examine under the microscope a surface of this rock. The little glittering scales of white or black that you see are mica. The greater part, pink or gray, with smooth, shiny surface, is feldspar. There are irregular grains of clear, glassy quartz. These three minerals are found in all granite, sometimes in very small crystals, sometimes in large messes. Often, there is also a hard, black mineral called hornblende. The color and coarseness of granite vary considerably. Granite is very hard, hence, it is a favorite building stone.

LAVA: Lava flows out of volcanoes and gradually hardens into rock. If the lava cools very quickly, it looks glassy and is called obsidian or volcanic glass. It is very hard. If it is porous or frothy in appearance, because of the heated gases which escape through it while cooling, it is pumice. If lava cools very slowly, you can see through out scattered crystals. When it is light in color we call it rhyolite. If it is dark, it is basalt. We do not find fossils in igneous rocks.


SEDIMENTARY (WATER FORMED) ROCKS

SAND: A loose material consisting of very small grains (Most commonly of quartz) resulting from the disintegration of rock.

GRAVEL: Coarse fragmentary rocks that have been rounded by the action of water. Used in making concrete and other road and building materials, etc.

MARL: An earthy, crumbling deposit, consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate (formed by disintegration of shells). Used as a fertilizer for soils deficient in lime. Also, when in compact deposits – known as Tufa Rock – used to make ornaments for rock gardens, chimneys, etc. Small deposits found mainly in central and north central Ohio.

SANDSTONE: One of the most common rocks formed by water. Sandstone is just grain of sand cemented together, partly by a mineral dissolved in the water, and partly by the pressure of other layers of rock forming above it. Sandstone may be red, brown, gray, or yellow, or it may be banded in several colors. Found in all parts of Ohio.

SHALE: Composed of silt or mud, cemented and pressed together into thin layers. Shale is very fine, feels smooth to the touch, and breaks easily in your hands. Often,


76
You find fossil shells in the shale, which show that the rocks were formed in shallow water where clams and other shellfish were living. Found universally.

CONGLOMERATE ROCK (“PUDDINGSTONE”): Big pebbles and stones cemented into rock by iron or lime in the water passing through it. The principal material may be pebbles, sand, clay, or combination of them. Found universally.

LIMESTONE: If conglomerate sandstone and shale materials are in the minority, the shells, partly ground up by the waves augmented by chemically precipitated calcium carbonate, form a lime mud which upon solidification makes limestone. The numberless animals, that live on the ocean bottom, die and the soft parts of their bodies disappear. Their solid parts, the lime of their shells or their bones, remain. These accumulate at the bottom of the sea, where by pressure they, together with fine slimes and coral, are formed into limestone. Limestone is often very rich in fossils. The western half of Ohio, having once been the bed of an ancient ocean, is underlaid by limestone. Limestone is used to make chalk; lime for road building material, and to make cement.


METAMORPHIC (CHANGED) ROCKS
Some rocks have clearly never been melted, but have been altered from their original condition. They have been subjected to great heat and great pressure in the presence of moisture. Their particles were pressed together, since the earth’s crust over them was strong they did not break through, therefore, they were baked under great pressure. Both sedimentary and igneous rocks may become heated and compressed so that when cooled they form a new rock. There are no fossils to be found in them.

MARBLE: is metamorphosed limestone. Hard. Not found in Ohio.

GNEISS: is metamorphosed granite. It has the same minerals as granite, but they are arranged nearly parallel in little bends. Very hard. Not found in Ohio.

ANTHRACITE: is metamorphosed coal. Hard. Not found in Ohio.

QUARTZITE: is metamorphosed sandstone.

SLATE: is a dense, fine grained rock produced by the compression of clays, shales, and other rocks, so that it splits easily into sheets. Used for roofing materials, blackbeards, school slate. Not found in Ohio, supply coming mainly from eastern Pennsylvania.


COAL FORMING MATERIALS
PEAT: A mass of vegetables matter that has accumulated under water for long periods. It is cut in blocks and left to dry. It is poor fuel. Found rather extensively, in Ohio, and north of the glacial drift boundary.

CLAY: A form of earth resulting from the decomposition of granite and similar rocks. Usually found as a subsoil, in layers underneath the growing soil. Coal forming clays – the light coal like materials found under the coal beds, usually highly plastic – are used extensively to make pottery, brick, tile, dishes, stoneware, etc. Extensive deposits in Ohio, - principally in eastern and northeastern portions.

LIGNITE: Same general qualities as peat, but is found under shale and sandstone making it more compact due to pressure. It is a low grade impure coal. Not found in Ohio. 

BITUMINOUS COAL: A compact, black vegetable matter that has lain sealed for millions of years underground. It is found in large quantities in southeastern Ohio. 

CANNEL COAL: A compact variety of coal, high in content of seed spores of the old marsh plants. It has a high content of volatile matter, or gaseous parts. Formerly, was used extensively in making artificial gas for lighting purposes, and in making kerosene for lamps. The fields are usually small. It is found on Flint Ridge in Licking County; near Warsaw in Coshocton Countyl (sic) and near Canfield in Mahoning County.


ROCK FORMING MINERALS
Minerals dissolved in water are often deposited in the form of crystals.

QUARTZ: The commonest of minerals, the base of many rocks. Found in loose grain in grains or flakes permeated through rocks; or in compact masses called quartz crystals. In the latter form, some varieties are cut into gems and ornaments. Clear, transparent rock crystal is sued for optical purposes, goblets and ornaments. Flint, a form of quartz, was used by primitive men both to make edged weapons, utensils, and for starting fires. Quartz is a valuable grinding or polishing material, used for making sandpaper and securing soap; also in manufacture of glass and porcelain. Some


77
Times when you break open a round, dull looking stone, you will find it has a beautiful quartz crystal in the center. Often the crystals are clear like glass, or they may be rose colored or violet. If the crystals are formed in cavities of lava rock, by water depositing the minerals it holds in solution, agates are formed. 

CALCITES: Crystals formed of limestone. They are of many shapes. Sometimes calcites (the Iceland spar) break into little cubes, and by looking through then you will see double.

STALACTITES AND STALAGMITES: Found in caves and caverns. They are made of limestone and are formed as the water drips slowly down, much as icicles are formed. Those which hang from above are stalactites, and these which stand up from below are stalagmites.

MICA: You can find mica if you can find granite. It splits into thin, transparent sheets. It is either light or dark. The dark has little commercial value. It is used in insulating materials. The micas commonly found as bright flakes in many of our rocks are a complex silicate derived largely from older rock.

GYPSUM: A hydrous calcium sulphate is a fibrous or granular material, found at Gypsum, near Sandusky, and in a few other parts of Ohio. It is converted by heat into “plaster of Paris”, which is then used in making wall beards, ceramic molds, for pottery, statuary, frescoes in buildings, and for many other purposes.

GALENA CRYSTALS: Are dark gray, cubical crystals often found in limestone; they are the source of much of our lead, and also have the wonderful power of being sensitive to radio rays.

SIDERITE (IRON CARBONATE) AND LIMONITE (A HYDROUS IRON OXIDE) : Common iron ores. These rocks are found from Lawrence county on the Ohio river to Columbiana county on the Ohio – Pennsylvania state line. There were formerly many blast furnaces through these regions, converting these ores into iron.

SOME INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Rub quartz on other rocks. If it scratches them, it is likely to be quartz, since it is harder than most minerals. Another test may be made by rubbing the rock on glass. If it scratches the glass, it is likely to be quartz.

To show in what way some of the rock crystals were formed, fill a test tube or tumbler half full of water. Make a solution by adding a little common table salt, to the water. Keep adding, a little at a time until some of it remains at the bottom of the water. Keep adding, a little at a time until some of it remains at the bottom of the tube and will not dissolve. Tie a string to a match or a pencil and place it across the top of the glass. Let the string drop into the solution, and set place it across the top of the glass. Let the string drop into the solution, and set aside to cool. As it cools, crystals of salt form on the string. Other crystals may be formed in the same way be using solutions of boric acid or copper sulphate. Look at the crystals through a magnifying glass to see whether or not they look alike.

Inquire if there are any glaciated areas near your camp. Visit them.

Make a collection of rocks for a museum. Label: place found, date, different kinds, and other interesting facts.

Be able to distinguish between rocks, minerals, crystals, and ores.

If possible visit: stratified rock formations, caves with stalactites and stalagmites, quarries, mines, old stone walls, formation in road cuts and universal formation.

Be able to identify precious minerals and rocks.

Make a map of the United States showing where the common minerals are found.

Try to know the quartz, mica, and feldspar in a piece of granite.

Visit rock formations in your locality and see if you can tell how they were formed.

Paint pictures of scenes that show rock formations or unusual formations on the earth’s surface.

Make drawings showing: stratification, sand dunes, etc.

Take a shallow bowl. Put in it a few small pieces of coal. Cover coal with about two tablespoons of salt, ten tablespoons of water and a few drops of mercurochrome. 

Watch results in the next few weeks.


78

SHRUBS

Shrubs are woody plants smaller than trees. A shrub may differ from a tree in that the stem branches beneat the ground.


Flowering Dogwood. Cornus florida. Linn

DESCRIPTION: Bark – Dark red brown surface divided into quadrangular or many-sided platelike scales; bark gives the appearance of being square checked. Trunk – Is short as this is a bushy tree 12-20 feet in height. Diameter of trunk – 12-14 inches. Branches – spreading and straggling – form a flat topped crown. Flowers – In May, when in bloom the dogwood is a mass of white. The very small flowers grow in dense greenish clusters surrounded by 4 large white or pinkish, petal-like bracts. (Often mistaken for the corolla). Each tiny flower consists of a light green 4 lobed calyx, 4 yellow green petals, 4 stamens alternate with the petals, 4 stamens alternate with the petals; 2 celled ovary. The 4 bracts form a flat cup 3-4 inches in diameter. Leaves – opposite, closely clustered at ends of branchlets; simple; ovate to elliptical; bright green, thick and firm, turning bright scarlet in autumn. Fruit – ripens in October – an ovoid scarlet stony fruit, 3/5 of an inch long, borne in clusters of 3-4 fruits; flesh is bitter. Wood – heavy, hard, strong, rough, close-grained, brownish, with thick lighter colored sapwood.

WHERE FOUND: Prefers rich, well-drained soil, usually under the shade of other trees. It is common throughout Ohio; especially on wooded hillsides.

INTERESTING FACTS: While dogwood has little commercial value, because of its hardness, it sometimes is used for tool handles, golf stick heads, and engraver’s blocks. Dogwood is one of the commonest and most generally distributed trees of the deciduous leaved forests of the middle and southern states.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Shrub is useful chiefly as an ornament in parks and gardens. Serves as food for birds and animals.


Black Choke berry. Pyrus aronia melanocarpa.
(Pyrus nigra). Spach

Pyrus is the given to pome fruit trees and shrubs, including pears, apples, mountain ashes, quinces, and chokeberries. Pyrus is a sub-classification of the Rose family – Rosacaea. Pyrus, the pears; Pyrus Malus, the apples; Pyrus Sorbus, the Mountain ashes. Aronia is a species of the subgenus Sorbus. The chokeberry, therefore, is a pome fruit allied to the Mountain Ash of the Rose Family. The chokeberries are ornamental shrubs grown for their white flowers, for their handsome fruits, and also for the bright autumnal tints of the foliage. The aronias are small shrubs with simple deciduous leaves turning bright red in autumn and with white flowers in small corymbs followed by berrylike, red, purple or black fruit. They are adapted for shrubbery and are hardy in the north. 

DESCRIPTION: Black chokeberry is the handsomest in foliage and bloom of the aronias or chokeberries. Wood and Bark – small brown stems and twigs. No commercial value. Flowers – white, are arranged in small corymbs or clusters; 5 lobed calyx, 5 spreading petals; numerous stamens; 5 celled ovary, wooly at the top, with 5 styles united at the base. Fruit – A small pome, very dark purple, or quite black, somewhat astringent, ripens in August but soon shrivels and drops. Leaves – Deciduous, short petioled, similar, elliptical, ovate, narrow at base, very finely round-toothed, abruptly pointed or scarcely pointed, dark green above, paler beneath, altogether smooth. 

WHERE FOUND: Grows in moist situations and woodlands as well as on drier and rocky soil. Common throughout Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Chief significance is its use as ornamental shrubbery.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The black chokeberry furnishes summer and fall food for birds. It also serves as cover for rabbits, pheasants, etc. 


Juneberry. Amelanchier Canadensis.
Toor and Gray


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Juneberry. (Continued)

fruit. Aronia is easily distinguished from Amelanchiers by the 5 celled mealy fruit and by midrib of leaves being glandular above. The species are closely related and difficult to distinguish. Eleven species have been described in the standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. All are called interchangeably by the names, Juneberry, Shadberry, Service berry. 20-25 species are known in North America. Amelanchier Canadensis, this variety is considered the best for ornamental use.

DESCRIPTION: Bard and wood – Bark is gray and variegated with sepia brown striping – on older trees, bark is furrowed into flat, scaly ridges; on young trees, greenish gray, smooth and slightly streaked. Commonly forms a group of several stems that may have a single trunk. Wood is very hard, heavy, strong, brown tinged with red and close-grained. Sometimes reaches height of 20-30 feet. Leaves – Alternate, simple, ovate about ½ as broad as it is long, finely and sharply serrate, abruptly pointed, dark green above, paler beneath. Both surfaces of new leaves are tomentose (wooly). Flowers – appear in early spring before or as the leaves unfold, (about month of April). Perfect, large, white, born in drooping racemes; calyx 5-cleft; petals 5 strap-shaped, about one inch in length; stamens, numerous; styles 5, united towards the base. Fruit – Appears in June, July, August. Globular, berrylike pome turning from light red to dark purple with slight bloom; sweet and edible when ripe. Considered tasteless by some persons. 

WHERE FOUND: Common in Ohio. Grows in a variety of soils, is found on hillsides, dry open woodlands, on high river and creek banks.

INTERESTING FACTS: Juneberry has 11 species that show possibilities for domestication. It is used for tool handles, cabinet work and (under name of lance wood) for fishing rods, umbrella handles, and canes.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Fruit of the Juneberry is edible for birds and animals. Valuable along river banks. Fresh and dried berries were a source of food for North American Indians.


Wild Plum. Prunus Americana. Marsh

DESCRIPTION: General – A small twigged, widely spreading, usually thorny, gnarled, tree. Commonly forming thickets, but occasionally becomes a small tree up to 30 feet in height, trunk rarely more than 1 foot in diameter. Bark and wood – Trunk divided not far above the ground (at height of 4 or 5 feet) into many spreading branches. Bark about 1/2 inch thick, dark brown tinged with red, separating at the surface into large, thin, scaly plates. Wood – hard, heavy, close-grained, strong, dark brown tinged with red; with thin, lighter colored sapwood. Leaves – Alternate, simple, oval, narrow, rounded at base, sharply serrate, thick and firm, dark green above; pale and glabrous and more or less hairy beneath. Flowers – Appear in early spring with, or before, the leaves, 1 inch in diameter, large, white, slender stalked, in small clusters of 2-5 flowers with unpleasant odor. Calyx of flower – 5 lobed, light red, smooth, green on the inner surface; lobed acute; petals, white, rounded at apex; stamens, 15-20; ovary club-shaped, greenish. Fruit – fleshy, stone fruit, small, hard, green, turning to orange and red, ripens August to October, skin, thick, tough, acrid; flesh, bright yellow, acid, sweet, juicy, edible; stone oval, pointed at apex.

WHERE FOUND: Common in Ohio. Grows in rich soil on bottom lands, and along the margin of woods, streams, swamps.

INTERESTING FACTS: Prunus Americana has been the source from which many domestic plum trees have been developed. The fruit is sometimes used for making jelly and preserves.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Plum thickets form cover for birds; such as, pheasants, quails, and for animals; such as, rabbits. The fruit is edible and serves as food for birds. 


Hawthorn. Crataegus crus-galli. Linn
Cockspur Thorn. (Thorn Apple) 

DESCRIPTION: General – Hawthorns are members of the Crataegus genus, Pomeae subfamily and Rosaceae family. Over 200 species are known to botanists in North America. Crataegus crus-galli is a commonly cultivated tree and shrub often growing to a height of 25-40 feet, with broad, round topped crown and wide spreading irregular branches. Bark and Wood – Trunk grows to 1 foot in diameter, covered with dark brown or gray scaly bark. It has rigid, spreading branches, glabrous light brown or gray branchlets


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Hawthorn. (Continued)

Armed with stout, pointed, chestnut brown or gray thorns or spines, 3-4 inches long. Wood is heavy, hard, tought, close grained, reddish brown, with thick, pale sapwood. Leaves are alternate, simple, sharply serrate, glabrous, obovate, acute or rounded at apex, gradually narrowed to the slender base. Flowers are white, anthers pink, slightly fragrant, 2/3 inch in diameter, stamens 10, styles usually 2. Flowers on slender pedicels in many flowered corymb. Fruit is nearly spherical, ripening late in October, fruit will cling on branches until spring. Fruit resembles tiny apples; dull red in color, flesh thin and dry, usually has 2 stones.

WHERE FOUND: May grow in sandy or swampy soil, also found on slopes of low hills in rich soil. Found usually in heavy limestone clay.

INTERESTING FACTS: Interesting for ornamental use in parks, because of flowers in spring, brilliant orange and scarlet foliage in fall; also because red fruits remain on tree during winter. Wood is used for handles of tools, mallets, walking sticks, and other small articles as well as for fuel.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Valuable for hedges and thickets as covers for birds and animals. The shrubs are easily transplanted. Seeds germinate slowly, requiring a year or more.


Sumac – Smooth Sumac. Rhus glabra. Linn.

Member of Anacordiaceae or Cashew Family. Anacordiaceae are trees or shrubs with acrid milky or resinous juice, sometimes poisonous and with alternate compound leaves. Among the sub-family Rhus are the Staghorn Sumac – Rhus typhina, the Mountain or Dwarf Sumac – Rhus copallina, the Poison Sumac Dogwood – Rhus vernix, Poison Ivy – Rhus taxicodendron, Poison Oak – Rhus quercifolia and the Fragrant Sumac – Rhus canadensis.

DESCRIPTION: General – Bark and Wood – Bark is thin and dark brown. Trees weak because straggly; wood soft, light and coarse-grained. Young stems green and somewhat hairy. Leaves are compound with 11-31 oblong lance shaped leaflets, whole leaf 15-20 inches long, grouped near end of stiff branch. Leaflets 2-5 inches long, oblong, pointed, serrate and glaucous beneath. Leaves turn orange and red in early autumn, giving Sumac brilliant foliage. Flowers – are small, greenish, singly not attractive, grow in dense conspicuous clusters, staminate and fertile flowers on separate plants are insect pollinated. Fruit – Many small, round, green coated seeds, covered with deep red hairs, acid to the taste, ripe in early September; grow in soft velvety, maroon, densely packed clusters: Fruit clusters persistent and ornamental throughout the winter; have an agreeable acid taste, sometimes called “Vinegar Tree” by farmers.

WHERE FOUND: In dry locations on hillsides and barren land; will grow anywhere if in the sun. Spreading underground stems, do send up shoots making thickets even on barren soil.

INTERESTING FACTS: Sumac, one of the oldest world-wide families. Among its members are the Cashew of the West Indies, the Pistachio of Syria, the Mango of the East Indies, the famous Lacquer Tree of Japan, the Smoke Tree of southern Europe, the Mastic Tree of the Orient and the Peruvian Sumac, grown in California under the name of Pepper Tree. Leaves of the American Smooth Sumac are used in tanning leather. Farmers are encouraged by U.S. Department of Agriculture to collect and cure sumac leaves.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Useful for creating thickets in otherwise barren situations. Provides cover and food for birds and animals. Useful for ornamental purposes because of brilliant foliage and winter berries.



Blueberries and Huckleberries

Vaccinium is the ancient Latin name of the blueberry. It is the name of the sub family of berries of the Ericacea (Heath) family. Among the vacciniums are the Blueberries, Bilberries, Deerberries, and Cranberries.

Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, (Lam) the low or dwarf Blueberry is sometimes called vaccinium angustifolium (Gray).

The high-bush Blueberry or Swamp Blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, is called High-bush Blueberry in New English and is sometimes called Huckleberry in the central states. This is confusing because Huckleberries belong to a related family, the Gaylussacias of the low blueberry. The Highbush Blueberry, the Ericacae, the Deerberry (sometimes called Squaw Huckleberry) are Vaccinias commonly found in Ohio. The family has con-


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tributed many excellent wild berries to man and wild life. 


Deerberry. Vaccinium stamineum. Linn
(Squaw Huckleberry)

DESCRIPTION: Stems – A divergently branched shrub 2-6 feet high with spreading light brown, slightly hairy branches. Leaves – One to four inches long, acute, entire, elliptical or obovate, pale, smooth beneath. Flowers – Very numerous in graceful leafy bracted racemes, showy, calyx glabrous, corolla pure white. Fruit – large, nearly spherical, dull green or yellow, sour, hardly edible. 

WHERE FOUND: In dry woods and thickets; general over Ohio; grows under deciduous trees. Does not grow well in limestone soil.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Useful as food and cover for birds. This bush adapted for barren, sandy or gravelly localities. Useful as an ornamental shrub because foliage rivals the sumac in color in the fall, and because it will grow in densely shaded situations.


Dwarf Blueberry. Vaccinium pennsylvanicum. Linn

Vaccinium angustifolium, Gray. Also commonly called the Low Blueberry. Low, early fruiting species, 8-27 inches high.

DESCRIPTION: Stems and Wood – Light brown, rough stems, more or less warty, branchlets olive green, and hairy. Leaves – Narrow and perfectly elliptical, not lance shaped, with extremely fine teeth almost bristle tipped. The leaves are lustrous dark olive green on both sides and from 1/3-3/4 inches long. Flowers – cylindrical ovoid, 1/4 inch long, white, sometimes suffused with pink. Fruit – Spherical berries, large, bluish black. Earliest berry to ripen in the north.

WHERE FOUND: On dry hills or rocky soil. Common in Ohio. Does not grow well in limestone soil.

INTERESTING FACTS: This variety produces most of the blueberries found in the eastern markets.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for man. Furnishes cover and food for birds. Useful for thickets on rocky soil. Thrives well on sandy hills. New erect shoots produce berries the following year.

(Illustration)


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(Illustration)
Vegetation binds soil and helps prevent erosion.



SOIL

Sun caused expansion; gases of the atmosphere made changes in the rocks; the freezing of the water in pores and cracks of rocks caused chipping; the wind carried small parts of broken rocks away and blew sharp edged sand against surfaces of rocks; water carried the rocks and sand along toward the see after dropping some of this material in places along the way, until the solid surface mantle of the earth was made up of sand, clay, gravel, rock and soil, which is a mixture of minerals and organic materials.

After millions of years of restlessness, of volcanoes and earth quakes, or rising and falling of land, there came a time when things could live on the earth. It is thought that these forms of early life developed into one called plants and animals.

The soil is a great digestive system that breaks down organic materials. In this it is assisted by living bacteria, fungi and certain animals such as the earthworm. When leaves, straw, roots, of other plan materials decay, the animal wastes are added to the soil, they give to the earth the substances that are stored up in their compounds. 

Through countless centuries, there has been built up a balanced relationship among waters, soils and vegetation. Each dependent and helpful to the others, they have learned to work together, through physical, chemical and biological processes, to create and maintain a continent of abundant, useful resources for the habitation and sustenance of men.

Soils and waters may be so used as to remain permanent assets yielding a perpetual income. The dust storm of May 11, 1934 when 300 million tons of fertile top soil were blown off the great wheat fields; and annually, 400 million tons of soil material are washed into the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River, surely man is impairing and diminishing the balance of nature.



INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Do you know of any soil in Ohio that has been improved by drainage? Does drainage remove surplus water, enable air to reach soil and roots, deepen the feeding area for roots, and aid tillage? Water carried away from trees permits the roots to grow deep-


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er so that they suffer less during dry seasons.

Explain the less expensive use of open ditches; the use of underdrains or covered drains; and the use of dams and dikes along sea coast areas.

Drainage is needed for: (a) flat lands that are too wet because of the overflow of streams at time of heavy floods, (b) bays or marsh lands which hold the free water too near the surface most of the summer season, (c) large, flat areas have clay subsoils, (d) depressions in hillsides which hold water coming from the land above. Show on the sand table how the drainage of a field is accomplished. Make a drawing to illustrate it.

Report on the follow: -Soil types on farms – losses from erosion – what we can do to prevent erosion – use of vegetation to control and to prevent erosion – use of mechanical structures – dams – etc. – farm practices, such as; contour tillage strip cropping – terracing – protection of woodlands from fire and over grazing.

What are the characteristics of different kinds of soils according to the amount of clay, sand, and vegetable matter that they contain? Make a wet ball of sand about the size of a hen’s egg. Make another ball of pure clay the same size. Place the two wet masses on a board to dry. Which ball dried more quickly? Which is harder when dried? Sandy soil dries quickly because the particles are open, therefore admitting warm air. Clay soil is compact hence admits air more slowly, retaining moisture and plant food.

What are the advantages of loam over other soils? How does humus improve sandy soils? Clay soils? How do you account for the deep, rich soil along the banks and near the mouths of rivers? What makes loam black and rich? 

Find the Coastal Plain of the United States. What is the chief type of soil found here? What grows on the Coastal Plain?

Draw pictures of crops growing in clay, sandy, and loamy soils, showing the roots in a cross section of the ground. Draw pictures showing sandy and clay soils after a rain.

The chemical compounds that make up the tissues of plants are chiefly carbon ©, hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), together with relatively small quantities of phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), sulphur (S). iron (Fe), etc. Which of these does the plant take from the air? Which from the soil? An experiment to show which of these elements is the most important. Take seven pots of clean sand. Mix thoroughly into elements is the most important. Take seven pots of clean sand. Mix thoroughly into No. 1, half as much pulverized sodium nitrate as can be put on a dime; in No. 2, the same amount of sodium phosphate; No. 3, sodium sulphate; No. 4, calcium sulphate; No. 5, iron sulphate; No. 6, mix all these substances in equal amounts and add the same quantity of the mixture; to No. 7, nothing is added. Plant twenty oat or barley kernels in each pot, water carefully with distilled water or rain water, and keep them growing for several weeks. Note the color and general vigor of the plants. Record results and conclusions.

Take 500 grams of garden soil and put it in an iron dish that you have previously weighed. Set the pan with the soil on a ring stand over a Bunsen burner that is burning with a flame that will keep the soil warm but not burn it, or the pan may be warmed on the stove. At the end of twenty-four hours, let it cool and then weight it and record the weight. The loss of weight represents what? But the pan of soil back on the ring stand or on the stove and heat it hard for three or four hours, stirring it occasionally with a glass rod. Again, cool and weigh. What does the loss of weight represent this time? Stir the soil sample into two litters of water. Let it stand for a minute or two until the sand settles to the bottom. Pour off the water and the contained silt into a second vessel. Dry the sand and weigh it. If the above apparatus is not available, use whatever you have and this will give a rough analysis of the soil.

Mix a half tumbler of garden soil with water to the consistency of thick cream. Put a bit of blue litmus paper in it and let stand, noting any change in color of the paper. What does the experiment show?

Fill a student lamp chimney or long, wide glass tube with fine, dry sand, tying a cloth over one and so that it cannot spill out; fill another with coarse dry sand, another with dry garden soil, and another with dry pulverized clay. Set all four, cloth end down, in a pan and fasten so that they will not tumble over. Now pour water into the pan. Which soil absorbs water most rapidly? In which, does the water finally


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rise highest? Explain your conclusions.

Fill three low pots of equal size with garden soil. Now pour 100 cubic centimeters of water into each. Sprinkle a layer of sand a quarter of an inch deep in one pot, a layer of garden soil. Now pour 100 cubic centimeters of water into each. Sprinkle a layer of sand a quarter of an inch deep in one pot, a layer of garden soil in the other, and leave the third without any added soil. Weigh again at the end of forty-eight hours. Record the weights and your conclusions from the experiment.

The following experiment on soil erosion illustrates problems of soil conservation as they bear on the loss of water and of soil and as these are influenced by slope, nature of soil, vegetative cover and amount of rainfall. Other important considerations are involved. The following materials are needed: A box at least 3’ x 3’ x 8”, boards to make two parallel partitions in this box, a piece of tar paper large enough to cover an area 4 x 8 feet, about 2 square feet of tin or galvanized iron, at least a dozen quart fruit hars or large glass bottles, two watering pots with fine spray nozzles, two pieces of 2 x 4 lumber, each 1 1/2 feet long, a stout table or shelf out of doors, a small quantity of gravel, garden soil, and sod, some corn, grass seed, a hoe, hammer, nails, brace, and bit. 

DIRECTIONS: Divide the box so that there are three compartments of equal width each as long as the box. Bore a number of holes through one end of each compartment. Line the compartments with tar paper, and leave the perforated ends unlined. Cut the tin into three pieces, each about 6’. 12’. Tack these pieces to the open end of each compartment and bend them so that surface water, which may collect in them, will be concentrated at one point before it runs out. Set the box on a solid base, a foot or so above the ground. Cover the bottom of each unit with a layer of coarse gravel. Cover the gravel with loose soil such as that in a seed bed or in a field in which crops are grown. A few stones may well be mixed with this soil. Cover the loose soil in one compartment with sod; or plant grass seed on this section so that the roots have time to work down into the soil. This will give more satisfactory results.

In another section, cover the loose soil of the third near the open end, with sod and leave the other two-thirds uncovered. Leave the middle third bare. Plant a few kernels of corn or sow oats in the uncovered loose soil in the remaining third. On the soil covered parts draw a hoe so that the tracks run across the short way of the section. Make these marks at least an inch or two deep. Corn may be planted un small rows. The partitions between the sections would stand at least an inch above the soil so that water which falls on one section will not flow into another. Measure the length of the three small plots of ground. Determine one-twentieth of this length. Take the 2 X 4 inch pieces of lumber. Beginning at one end, mark off units one-twentieth of the length of the plots. At each of these marks, bore a hole large enough to hold loosely a 20-penny spike or half-inch bolt. If the box lies flat on a table it has no slope; but if one edge of the box is raised from the table by nails through the lowest holes, the box is raised one-twentieth of its length to give a five per cent slope. With the nails in the second holes, the box is raised two-twentieths, or one-tenth, of its length, for a ten per cent slope.

What will give slopes of 15 per cent, 20 per cent, and 25 per cent? The three strips of soil represent different conditions, and can be set at a desired slope. This equipment will teach something about soil washing. Take a 3-gallon watering pot with a fine spray nozzle. With household cement, or with adhesive tape, close the holes, except those which form a single line across the nozzle. Below each of the tin toughs, set a large glass jar such as a gallon glass jug. Let the box remain level on its support. Water it well with the watering pot, making sure that each part gets about the same amount of water. Take about a half hour to empty the 3-gallon watering pot; if emptied in 10 minutes it would equal a 1.6 inch fainfall and this would amount to a so called cloudburst. If any water runs off into the bottles, does the amount vary? Which bottle receives the least? Is much of the loose soil washed away? On another day renew the hoe marks on the loose soil if they have been washed out. Now raise the box to a ten per cent slope, the lower end of course being whore the water can run out. Again sprinkle the whole box evenly with water from the watering pot, letting the water flow on continuously until the pot is empty. Does the amount of water which runs off each part of the box vary? Is the water more muddy or less muddy as it comes from the sod covered part? Sat aside the jars containing the water


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and mud. Substitute for them three new jars. If necessary restore the different plots with new soil so that they are as nearly as possible as they were when the experiment started. Restore the hoe marks to the bare soil areas.

Now raise the box to a 30 per cent slope by putting the nails in the sixth hole. Repeat the program as it was when the boxes were at the ten per cent slope. Is there more or less run-off water and soil than before? What differences are noticed? Keep the jars containing the runoff. Compare them with those used before. When the mud settles in the jars they may show a measurable difference of soil wash. Put a newest of jars under the tin troughs. Restore the slope to a ten per cent grade. Restore the soil surface. From two watering pots sprinkle water over the plots at the same time. Thus twice as much water fell in the same length of time as before. What effect does this have on the amount of water and soil which runs off?  Is the soil-covered surface cut more deeply than it was when less water fell on it? Continue drenching the three plots with water until much of the loose soil is washed away. From which of the three parts is it washed first? Allow the three plots to dry for some days. Each day, test a small area in each plot to see if one plot is drier than another. Which of the three holds moisture in the soil the longest? Was this the plot from which the water flowed most or least readily? Was this the plot which lost the most or the least soil? If each of these plots represented a large field or farm, in which would crops suffer least in time of drouths?

(Illustration)
Erosion steals the soil.


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SPIDERS

Locate a web of the large garden spider and capture an insect like the cricket or grasshopper. Throw it into the web. Observe what the spider does, and especially look to see how it spins the silk in which it wraps its prey. What is the advantage of a web? Do you know of any other animal or plant traps found hereabouts? If you can find a spider spinning its web observe how this is accomplished. Find somewhere about the camp a cobweb. Do the strands have any definite arrangement? Find on the grass the web of the funnel weaver. Where does the spider stay in this web? Look under sticks and stones for wolf spiders. They are swift runners and the females will be found carrying the round silken egg case. On the ground and on tree trunks will be found some of the jumping spiders. How do they capture their prey? Look on the fall asters and sunflowers for specimens of the crab spider. Watch on the field trips for the young spiders sailing through the air on the tufts of their silk.

Keep a garden spider in an insect cage and watch it spin its web. Two kinds of thread are used – spirals and spokes. The spirals are sticky and elastic so that insects may be caught. The spokes furnish support and are paths on which the spider can walk. By placing your pencil point first on a spiral thread and then on a spoke thread, you will see how they differ. How many times does the spiral go around the web? How far apart are the coils? Make a drawing of a web in your notebook. A spider has its spinnerets on the back of its body and spins a thread as it walks along. Find threads of spider webs attached to grasses during autumn days. These are bridges.

Have you seen spiders of almost the same color as their surroundings? What is the advantage of such coloration? Spiders have from 2 to 12 eyes. How many legs do they have? Spiders shed their old skins from 5 to 9 times. How does a spider protect its eggs?

Make an insect cage as follows: Fill a flowerpot four inches or more in diameter with earth. Plant in it a spray of sweet clover or other available plant. Set a lamp chimney into the earth over the plant and tie a piece of cloth over the top. The earth should of course be kept moist.



CLEAN STREAKS

Nomadic races had no serious pollution problems as they moved frequently and scattering populations did not overload the natural power of water to assimilate and correct wastes. With a dense and industrialized population, the use of water courses to carry away industrial and municipal wastes can no longer be tolerated. Public welfare must be considered before private greed and gain.

No legal rights exist for the pollution of waters and there is a clear recognition, in the courts, of responsibility for damage caused by pollution. Riparian rights give only the privilege to use water and pass it on undiminished in quantity and quality. We are increasingly appreciative of the interests of the public in the conservation of our natural resources, of which water is a primary one. Under modern conditions, water must be utilized over and over and public interest demands its return, after use, in a condition which will not endanger human lives, destroy public resources or place a heavy burden on other agencies to restore it to a condition suitable for use.

Pollution not only effects (sic) the biological and recreation values, but industry as well. Many industries must have clean waters for manufacturing purposes and seek streams undefiled by filthy waters. While some industrial wastes are difficult to correct, this does not justify damage by them to public interests and research is making possible more economical and effective treatment.

While we have suffered heavy losses in our rivers and lakes due to pollution, they are public resources for which there is no justification or necessity to turn over to private exploitation or destruction. The interests of health, recreation, public welfare and of industry itself require that the old principle of riparian rights govern water, when used, be returned undiminished in quantity and quality. Pure water is so vital a need that anything less cannot be tolerated.

Pollution is caused by untreated municipal sewage and from waste of industrial and other plants. Dumping waste into waters raises a serious health problem, reduces enticing waters to obnoxious liabilities, and hampers fish reproduction. While sewag (sic) from municipalities constitutes the greatest danger to public health, industries are


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probably the greatest factor in affecting fish life. The oxygen consuming power of their wastes is usually many times stronger than that of domestic sewage.

Pollution may affect fish life in any or all of three ways: (1) Direct killing of fish. Reduction of oxygen supply in the waters may cause the suffocation of fish or they may be poisoned by some forms of chemical waste. (2) Decrease in fish food. Changes in the natural water conditions may so decrease the supply of fish food that the fish migrate to other locations. (3) Reproduction. Discharge of large quantities of suspended matter tends to form sludge beds and interferes with spawning and the spawn. Pollution of any kind is more harmful to young fish than to adult fish.

In 1935, it was reported that one of our eastern cities alone dumped 95,000,000 gallons of human waste and sewage a day into one of our most beautiful, historical rivers. Another inland city throws 600 to 800 tons of raw garbage a day into one of our most beautiful, historical rivers; one of our eastern states releases daily into its streams 3,000,000 pounds of concentrated sulphuric acid, one of the deadliest know poisons, with the result all fish life has been killed and its devastating effect is soon 500 miles down river where all mussel life has been exterminated. Another state, whose tributaries food into the same river artery, deposits 5,000,000 pounds of this same deadly poison, with a result that the artery itself must carry 8,000,000 pounds daily, where it is obvious no fish life can live. In one western state, 50 miles of the most picturesque mountain stream, which otherwise would be as beautiful a trout stream as could be found anywhere in the country, is entirely devoid of all fish or aquatic life because of mine waste, and 6 lakes touched by this water are likewise barren of all life; two or three of our principal inland river of our principal inland rivers on which several large cities depend for their drinking water supply have now been polluted to such an extent that by the existing methods of water purification, namely chlorine, it is barely possible to obtain water suitable for human consumption; and with the population growing, industries increasing, we have reached the very peak of reasonable safety. Vessels, when tieing up at one of our principal inland wharfs, have to attach pipes to share water, because the river water is not only unit for use in washing one’s hands, but is so vile that they do not pump the same through the engines.

(Illustration)



TERRARIUM
A simple terrarium for studying land insects and plant life may be made by placing some soil, on which there is sod, in a good flowerpot. On the sod place a Iantern (sic) or chimney, over which is thrown a piece of cheesecloth to keep the insects from jumping and flying out. Keep the soil slightly moist.

A larger terrarium, in which specimens of wild plant can be grown and insects


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kept, may be made from boxes. The simplest one has a layer of moist dirt, at least four inches deep, in the bottom, covered with moist dirt, at least four inches deep, in the bottom, covered with moss to prevent evaporation. The top of the box is covered with fine wire netting or cheesecloth to keep in any insects which have been put into it. A more elaborate terrarium can be made by putting pieces of glass into the sides of a wooden box or berry crate, and covering the top or ends with mosquito netting or wire. An all glass terrarium may be made by cementing the edges of glass together with Mar-Mora cement. There should also be a removable glass cover. Put the terrarium into an aluminum tray. Put an inch of small stones in the bottom, cover with soil and put in a few wild plants. Do not keep the terraria in direct sunlight or permit them to dry out.

Grasshoppers and crickets can be fed pieces of fruit and grass. Caterpillars will eat the leaves of the plant on which they are found. Some cocoons will change in 7 to 10 days, while others stay in this condition all winter. Cocoons or chrysalids that are found may be put into the terrarium and kept slightly moist until the moth or butterfly comes out.

Toads absorb water through their skins and there must be enough moist soil in the terrarium to cover them. Toads will eat insects and pieces of worms, so do not keep them in a terrarium in which insects are to be observed. Do not keep animals more than two or three weeks in a terrarium, and be sure to food them properly. Bring in the specimens for study, handle them gently and let them go as soon as possible. 



WATER

Air, sunlight, soil, and water are the four factors absolutely essential for man’s existence.

Seventy-two per cent of the surface of our globe is covered by the waters of oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers, brooks, and the like. In the oceans, the water is sometimes found to be more than five miles deep. Indeed, it is estimated, if the surface of the earth were level and if all the waters were to be evenly distributed over the globe, the covering of water would everywhere be a mile deep. The atmosphere absorbs and holds considerable quantities of water vapor. Particles of soil, even if apparently dry, are usually covered with a film of moisture, and beneath the surface of the earth are countless underground reservoirs of water. The bodies of all living things-plants, animals, and man – consist to a large extent of this extremely common substance.

The total quantity of water in, on and about the earth is believed to be fairly constant, but it exists in various forms and places; as liquid or ice in the oceans, lakes, rivers, and other surface waters; as liquid or frost in ground and underground storage; as clouds, fogs, mists, and vapors suspended in the atmosphere. It changes from one to another of these forms and moves from one to another of those places.

The total quantity of water in, on and about the earth is believed to be fairly constant, but it exists in various forms and places; as liquid or ice in the oceans, lakes, rivers, and other surface waters; as liquid or frost in ground and underground storage; as clouds, fogs, mists, and vapors suspended in the atmosphere. It changes from one to another of these forms and moves from one to another of those places.

The atmosphere absorbs water from oceans, lakes, rivers, the land, and other exposed surfaces – even from falling raindrops – (evaporation) drawn from ground storage to be exhaled by the leaves of trees and other vegetation (transpiration). Few people realize what quantities of water are transported by evaporation and transpiration. This water stored in the atmosphere reservoir, is termed fly-off.

Moisture laden air is cooled as it moves upward, or as it comes in contact with other cooler bodies of air, and the moisture is dropped in the form of rain or snow (precipitation). Fogs and dews are also forms of precipitation.

Generally, the precipitated water (cut-off), when it strikes the surface of the land, is absorbed and held by the surface soil (absorption), and when the water content of this layer has reached a certain point, depending on soil conditions, any surplus which penetrates by gravity to an underground reservoir is called the “water table.”

When the rate of precipitation is greater than the rate of absorption and infiltration, part of the water runs along the surface of the ground directly into creeks and rivers, and thence into the lakes and the oceans. This is called “surface run-off.”

Water vapor is transported to all parts of the earth and is precipitated as dew, fog, rain, snow, and hail, thus supplying regions far distant from oceans. Considerable water is vaporized from land surfaces, about 6500 cubic miles run-off the land annually carrying some five trillion tons of dissolved matter with it. All chemical elements are thus transported into the ocean, through some, of course, occur there in very minute


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quantities. The continual circulation of water from ocean to atmosphere, from atmosphere to land and back to ocean again has vast importance for the life on the earth.

The question of what becomes of the water derived from the rain and snow that falls in Ohio involves many features. A part of this water is intercepted by trees and other vegetation, from which it evaporates and is returned to the atmosphere without reaching the ground; a part is evaporated directly from the surface of the ground a part flows directly into the streams and ponds and runs off, except a small amount that is lost by evaporation; a part percolates into the ground and becomes soil moisture or penetrates to the water table, where it enters the zone of saturation and is called ground water. The soil moisture may be absorbed and transpired by plants or may be evaporated directly from the soil. The water in the zone of saturation may be transpired by plants or may evaporate where it comes near the surface, or it may seep into the ponds and streams eventually and be carried out of the state.

The chief factors which affect the natural drainage of Ohio are the underlying rock, topography, storage, artificial drainage, rainfall and evaporation. These are interdependent. The topography is determined to a great extent by the underlying rock especially in the southern part of the state. The storage is due to the topography in some parts and to the underlying rocks in others. Evaporation is dependent upon the rainfall, topography, mean annual temperature, etc.

Water that falls as rain or snow may be stored at the surface or below the surface. The surface storage includes the water that is hold in the ponds and reservoir and usually includes also the water in the streams. Moreover, surface storage includes considerable quantities of water that accumulate on the surface in winter as ice or snow. The subsurface storage consists of the soil moisture in the zone of aeration and the ground water in the zone of saturation. The storage creates an interval of variable duration between the falling of the water as rain or snow and its exit by evaporation or as run-off; and it thereby greatly complicates the problem of determining what ultimately becomes of the water that falls as rain or snow.

In several sections of the state, there has been a considerable lowering of the water table during the past three decades. Lowerings of this nature might be due to a decrease in rainfall, increased amounts removed through pumping wells, artificial drainage, or deforestation. The presence of vegetation increases the amount of water lost by transpiration and evaporation, but greatly decreases the run-off. Thus, forests are important in the conservation or our water supplies in flood prevention and erosion control. 

The circuit of water through the following three reservoirs, by processes of accumulation, evaporation or transpiration and condensation constitutes the Hydrological Cycle – Nature’s plan of purifying and supplying water to all living things in the world. The three reservoirs are: THE SURFACE RESERVOIR: The visible water on the surface of the earth; such as, the oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, and swamps. THE GROUND WATER RESERVOIR: That water in and below the earth’s surface which has been cut off from the run-off by percolation into the earth, and represents the source of our wells and springs. THE ATMOSPHERIC RESERVOIR: Whence comes our rainfall is the water vapor contained in the air envelop surrounding the earth (sic). It is replenished from our surface and ground waters by evaporation and by transpiration from the growing vegetation as it sends roots down into the moist earth to gather liquid food from the ground waters to transpire or breathe it back again into the air. See Page Number 92-A.

Reservoirs for the conservation of water are of two types, namely: detaining and retaining. (a) The detaining type partially holds back and controls surplus storm water above dams for the purpose of flood protection only. When the flood is over, reservoirs run dry. (Ex. Dayton Conservancy District) (b) The retaining type of reservoir holds a reserve supply of water for the following beneficial purposes: To reduce size of floods. To help restore ground water by percolation, lateral seepage, infiltration and absorbtion (sic). To preserve fish and wild life. To increase supply of fresh water for cities and villages. To help dilute city and industrial waste by low flowage control. (Muskingum Conservancy District) To provide recreational facilities, etc. (Muskingum Conservancy District, Buckeye Lake, Indian Lake, Lake St. Marys) etc.

Various methods of controlling water flow and promoting infiltration are: check


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Dams, obstructions placed across streams to prevent a too rapid run-off of flood water. If the stream is of considerable size permanent dams of concrete should be built. One of the simplest and most effective types of dams is the boulder or stone dam. To construct this, lay the largest available boulders close together across the stream bed. If these boulders do not give the desired height, they should be laid two or more abreast, so that the finished dam will appear like a pyramid in cross-section. When the boulders are in more than one layer, it is often desirable to drive several stakes in the middle of the structure so as to give added support. When only one row of main boulders is used, several additional boulders or stones should be placed along the downstream side of the dam to prevent undercutting and destroying the dam. To retard bank erosion, it is desirable to make the sides of the dam (or other barrier) somewhat higher than the midcurrent section. Additional smaller boulders should be carefully placed on the upstream side, so that the current wedges them against and between the larger base boulders. Then, stones should be chinked into the holes and gravel should be thrown onto the upstream side, so as to make the dam fairly watertight.

A modified boulder or stone dam can be made by alternating layers of boulders or stones with layers of brush.

HEWITT DAM: A number of logs about 10 to 15 feet long, each notched on its upper surface near the downstream end, are laid lengthwise with the current to form a row across the stream bed. A large log is then laid across the stream, seated into all the notches of the short logs, and buried into the bank at each end. Coarse wire netting is stapled to the top of the main log, and to the top of all the lengthwise logs. The wire strip should be wide enough to overlap the lengthwise logs at their upper end. Brush, stones, and sod are then piled upon the netting, to hold the dam securely in place and to render it watertight. 

DEFLECTORS: In developing deflector designs, the aim is to put the current to work to fore the stream to improve itself. By careful planning, the current can be made to create and enlarge pools in soft bottomed streams to almost any degrees desired with the expectation that the sheltered pools so constructed will increase the carrying capacity of the stream.

The principle of the deflectors is the blocking of only part of the stream, thus concentrating and accelerating the current where not blocked.

Where properly slanted, this type of barrier, unlike a dam, does not greatly spread out the water above, although it deepens the flowing water several inches by offering a partial resistance to the natural flow.

A simple type of deflector is the boulder wing or log wing.

Where the current is very slow or where the stream is very wide and shallow (even though swift), it is often desirable to combine two wings to form a V-deflector.

A more elaborate but more effective current splitting device is the A. deflector. This digs two long pools on either side, making a good pool for young fish in the angle of the A end forming a bar below. From the bar, a fisherman may cast his fly into the pool on either side. The A-deflector when made of logs needs to be staked. 

By properly slanting berries one is able to twist the current to any point desired, or to give it a whirlpool action. The maximum diffing action is apparently obtainable by forcing the current into a pocket, and allowing it to flow out to one side through a small hole. 

Some types of cover are especially designed for the protection of the soft banks of stream bends, to decrease the smothering of the stream by the eroded matter. Such covers should not be preceded upstream by a current accelerating deflector, unless the deflector is installed on the outside of the bend, to direct the current away from the eroding bend which is being protected. If the deflector is thus placed on the outside of a bend to retard erosion, it should be built high enough to turn high water, since if it were built only to the ordinary low water height, the high water would plunge over it to erode the bottom and bank more severely than normally. The two types of bank protecting covers now used are the beam cover and the bend raft.


INTERESTING THINGS TO DO

Draw a picture to show how you think the oceans were formed.



Bulletin No. 24
June 13, 1935

SPECIAL EDITION FOR CCC CAMPS

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Or the

EVOLUTION OF A DROP OF WATER

David C. Warner
Executive Secretary
STATE WATER CONSERVATION BOARD
Columbus, Ohio

TO EDUCATIONAL ADISERS:

Your ingenuity will surely suggest “ways and means” for interpreting and illustrating this circular on Water. It provides an out-line of a course that all your boys should know about. We shall be watching your reports from month to month for information about the use of this course in your camp.

NAT. T. FRAME



THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
or the
EVOLUTION OF A DROP OF WATER
by
David C. Warner
Executive Secretary
STATE WATER CONSERVAITON BOARD
June 13, 1935
Columbus, Ohio

Four Divisions
In following the natural evolution or developments of water through its diversified course or cycle, as planned by an all-wise Providence for the beneficial uses of water as it passes through the Hydrological Cycle, it will be necessary to divide this cycle of water into four divisions or classes of action; namely, precipitation, fly-off, run-off and cut-off.

Precipitation
Precipitation is the release by condensation of the fly-off from the atmospheric reservoir in the form of rain, snow, hail, fog and dew back again to the surface of the earth.

Fly-off
The fly-off is the evaporation and transpiration of water in the form of stem or aqueous vapor into the atmospheric reservoir.

Run-off
The run-off is that water which passes over the surface of the earth on its way by gravity toward the ocean.

Cut-off
The cut-off is the percolation, infiltration and saturation of water into all solid substances, especially into the surface of the earth, where it becomes known as the ground water.

Nature’s Reservoir
Water is not destroyed by using it over and over again. It may be changed and transformed by its use of course through the Hydrological Cycle, yet it always returns to us again, after having accumulated somewhere in one of nature’s storage reservoirs of which there are three; namely, surface waters, underground waters and atmospheric waters.

Surface Reservoir
The surface reservoir is the visible water on the surface of the earth, such as the ocean, lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks and swamps. These bodies of water are replenished from the rainfall. They represent the run-off, the retarded run-off and the final accumulation of the run-off into the ocean. 

Ground Water Reservoir
The ground water reservoir is that water in and below the earth’s surface which has been cut off from the run-off by percolation into the earth and represents the source of our wells and springs.

Atmospheric Reservoir
The atmospheric reservoir, whence comes our rainfall, is the aqueous vapor contained in the air envelope surrounding the earth. It is replenished from our surface and ground waters by evaporation and by transpiration from the growing crops and forests as

*Page 107, The Conservation of Natural Resources by Charles Richard Van Hise.


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They send their roots down into the moist earth to gather their liquid food from the ground waters and transpire or breathe it back again into the air. Another source of replenishment is from the breath of all animal life.

It will be interesting to analyze the different notions of water in its natural course through the Hydrological Cycle, which are very closely and intricately interrelated.

The fly-off can be divided into two parts; evaporation and transpiration.

From Open Water
Evaporation will result from the direct exposure of a body of water to the atmosphere, temperature or the sun’s rays. This body of water may be a lake, pond, river or ocean; in fact, any exposed body of water throws off a certain percentage of evaporation at all times.

Falling Water
As the rain storm is passing through the atmosphere there is a certain amount of evaporation.

Vegetation
As the rain and dew is precipitated upon the vegetation, there is an evaporation from this vegetation into the atmosphere.

Ground
Considerable evaporation results from the damp ground during and after a rain storm.

Thus, we see that evaporation or the development of aqueous vapor or steam can evolve from all manner of conditions, where water comes in contact with the atmosphere, heat or the sun’s rays.

Transpiration
Another part of the fly-off is what is known as transpiration or the breathing into the atmosphere of water vapor from the growing vegetation and animal life which live on the surface of the earth. Every pound of vegetable growth is the result of a transpiration of thirty-two pounds of water. Thus, we see that in order that every tree or vegetable may develop a normal growth it must send its roots down into the damp earth and pull out of the ground waters, thirty-two pounds of water for every pound of vegetable growth every year of its life. Some calculate that 320 pounds of water are necessary for one pound of dry vegetable matter.

Ground Water
The ground water from which comes the liquid food for vegetable life is what is known as the cut-off in the Hydrological Cycle. The ground water is the resultant of percolation and infiltration of the rainfall into the earth. Percolation depends upon the percentage of porosity of the different strata of the earth’s surface. If the surface can be kept moistened, then deep percolation will be very rapid and the cut-off of the run-off at the surface moisture by its shade and leaf mulch for rapid absorption, but it also permits the most rapid transpiration.


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Erosion
It would appear from first thought that a finely pulverized dust condition on the sides of our hills would be a great inducement for the rapid percolation of water down into the substrata, but this dry dust becomes completely filled with air so that when the rain drops strike it, the pores or capillaries are immediately sealed with dust bubbles. Because the air cannot escape as rapidly as the water should be absorbed, the percolation is greatly retarded and the surface becomes a puddled mess on top of the dry subsoil. The result is a rapid run-off on the steep slopes carrying the loose particles of saturated surface soils down over the dry subsoil, thus creating a heavy volume of erosion. Thus we see the necessity of a matted porous cover on the surface to prevent the eroding action of water directly upon the fine silt-like particles of the surface soils.

Run-off Control
To facilitate the most rapid percolation or infiltration of the greatest quantity of the rainfall, it is necessary that water be slowed up after its precipitation over the surface, by some retarding or impounding basins, such as silt traps, reservoirs, contour farming and all of the methods of soil erosion prevention that may be worked out in a completely controlled drainage system for the maximum amount of percolation of the rainfall into the ground waters.

Ground Water Zones
These ground waters may be divided into certain zones, such as the capillary zone, the wet weather saturated zone, the natural water-table and the subterranean or normal water-table into which the cut-off waters finally accumulate. The depletion of the water-table has been accelerated as a result of the deforestation of the surface, the improper cultivation and the excessive uncontrolled drainage of the past 100 years for the selfish exploitation and land speculation of America.

Water-table Restoration
The restoration of the water-table will depend upon the reforestation of our rougher lands, the proper cultivation and soil erosion prevention of the lesser slopes now under cultivation and the greater impoundage of all the waste waters, with the greatest possible retardation of the wasting run-off at the most convenient and highest altitudes possible on the farms and in the forests of our country.

Accumulating Benefits
Every pond of water represents a potential store house of accumulating benefits as the years pass by. Its open surface is sending into the air by evaporation a large quantity of vapor to temper the surrounding atmosphere and adds its portion to the possibilities of more adequate and dependable precipitation. The surface evaporation represents a column of water of 30 to 45 inches annually from the entire exposed surface of the aggregate surface water reservoir in general.

Restore Ground Water
These bodies of stored and retarded water, by lateral seepage and vertical percolation are sending an unknown quantity of cut-off into the ground, an unknown distance in all directions, where it joins that largest storage of water known as the ground water reservoir, only to come back again to the surface at a lower point by gravity in our springs and wells for the essential uses of life and industry.


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Controlled Run-off Valuable
The run-off of our waters is that part of the surface waters which find their way over the surface of the earth into the streams and rivers and at last empties into the sea. This run-off of the rainfall in its normal conditions represents about 1/3 of the annual rainfall and should be slowed up and spread out over the entire year as controlled waters for the use o man in all phases of his activities. The run-off if properly controlled can pass through the entire Hydrological Cycle and through the biological uses of water; thus it becomes the most valuable mineral in all the world. 

Benefits of Controlled Run-off
The complete control of the run-off of the rainfall from the highlands of our country to the sod represents all of the beneficial, possible usages of a controlled water system consisting of:

1.	Flood mitigation
2.	Irrigation or crop insurance
3.	Domestic and industrial water supply
4.	Sanitation with a controlled dilution of properly controlled polluting wastes
5.	Hydraulic power
6.	Recreational waters
7.	Restoration of ground waters
8.	Controlled drainage with the prevention of excessive silting by soil erosion prevention development work in the entire watershed.

Navigation
After all of those things have been done and the tributary waters of a controlled system have been gathered together in the great and adequate all-the-year-around, normalized flowage for the navigation and water transportation of the commerce of the country.

Cycle Completed
As our great rivers carry the inland waters out into the sea and all of those developments that have been mentioned are united with the evaporation from the sea into the atmospheric reservoir, the cycle is completed by the precipitation from the atmospheric reservoir, back again to the surface reservoirs, on through the ground reservoirs and out again into the great ocean.

Normal Balance Upset by Man
The normal balance of those water reservoirs depends upon man’s regulation and conservation of our water resources. The cycle has been thrown out of balance by the selfish exploitation by man of this, the greatest of all natural resources, through uncontrolled drainage and deforestation for speculation profits.

Program Demanded
This waste of one of the most usable and useful natural resources demands a change, by both federal and state regulation in a planned program of water conservation in all of its ramifications as water passes through the Hydrological Cycle. 

Conservation Defined
Conservation means to conserve, to save for future use, to repair damages of exploitation, to take care of, use, improve and preserve the unbounded wealth of natural resources we have inherited in our country and hand down to posterity a better country to live in because we used the wisdom of those times to think into the future and comprehend the coming needs of posterity.


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Conservation of our natural resources means use without abuse and waste; development without destructive exploitation; rehabilitation and salvage for posterity of the almose (sic) destroyed natural resources that were exploited during the past generations.

Naturalist Needed
Our forests, minerals, soils and water are so closely related that they need the attention of a naturalist, a lover of nature, a scientific treatment by men who have a thorough and trained knowledge of nature and her laws.

Water Conservation Defined
Water Conservation is the practical wisdom of man, working in harmony with the laws of nature for the maximum control of the runoff of the rainfall for the realization of all the available benefits of water as it passes back to or toward the sea.

Water Conservation Basic
Water Conservation is basic and is so far reaching in its interrelations and ramifications that it is difficult to describe the points of contact in the physical and economic structure of our growing civilization.

Water is the most valuable mineral in this world for the use and existence of life. Therefore, water must be conserved in its purity and abundance for the normal growth of this generation with the perpetuation and increase of its quantity and quality for posterity.

America needs a Complete Water Conservation Program.
Because:
Our springs and wells are going dry.
Our water-table is lowering and fast disappearing.
Our forests are nearly all cleared away.
Our lakes and ponds are decreasing in size and number.
Our drainage systems are uncontrolled.
Our swamps are being rapidly drained.
Our streams are becoming very flashy.
Our streams are polluted with the wastes of civilization.
Our wild life is being destroyed.
Our soils are being rapidly eroded and lost.
Our farm lands are becoming submarginal instead of more profitable.
Our floods are increasing in devastation.
Our humid climate is changing.
Our local showers are diminishing.
Our local evaporation is impaired by diminishing open water areas.
Our country is showing the rapid encroachment of approaching desert conditions.
Our selfish exploitation and waste are destroying our resources.
Our procrastination has reached the limit.
Our rainfall is dependent upon general cyclonic storms.

Something must be done. 


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America is Growing in Population and Industrially.
Therefore:
We need more pure water.
We are decreasing the available supply and increasing the demand for pure water. (An inverse ratio)
We need to slow up the run-off.
We are rapidly increasing the drainage.
We need the restoration of our water-table.
We need flood mitigation with headwater reservoirs and source stream control.
We need reforestation on our waste lands.
We need municipal forest in every community surrounding a beautiful lake.
We need more State and National Water and forest pleasure and beauty spots.
We need slackwatered streams for greater dilution.
We need the trinity of source stream control consisting of forest, erosion control and reservoirs.
We need inland river navigation by canalization.
We need more water storage for fish and game.
We need irrigation with controlled drainage.
We need hydro-electric power for coal conservation.
We need a greater dissemination of the knowledge of the relation of land use and water conservation.
We need some kind of a compulsion in order to combine land use and water conservation. 
We need rehabilitation of submarginal land which is more important than reclamation of the desert.
We need the perpetuation of the CCC to train and develop our youth in nature’s training school.
We need to restore and perpetuate the public domain for posterity and protect it from exploitation by the ever present speculator.
We need decentralized industry with laborers living on the rehabilitated land as part-time farmers.
We need to avoid that fast approaching point in the near future when our available supply of water will not justify any further expansion of industry.
We need a completely planned water conservation program.


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What Shall We Do?
Shall we continue our wasteful program or shall we prepare for the future while we are at the pinnacle of our greatest development, derived from the exploitation of our superabundant wealth in natural resources?

Shall we begin a comprehensive program of water conservation and hand down to our children and our children’s children a better and more usable wealth in water resources than we received from our forefathers?

They needed exploitation and development, while we need reclamation and conservation in order that our bequest to posterity may show the greater wisdom of our present high standard of civilization, wealth and prosperity.

Abraham Lincoln says:

“Public sentiment is everything. With public sentiment nothing can fail; without it nothing can succeed. Consequently, he who molds public sentiment goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. He makes statutes and decisions possible or impossible to execute.”

Public Demanding Action
We believe that public sentiment is demanding action from our public servants. Our water conservation program should be so complete as to utilize all of the excess run-off by source stream control and slackwatered rivers.

Our streams, springs, lakes, ponds, swamps and forests must be restored to a primeval condition, so that wild life can grow naturally and our recreational opportunities, agricultural advancement and industrial development can progress normally as this nation advances into maturity and old age.

Problem Unprecedented
The problems of our times are as unprecedented as are our times. The wisdom and power of our times admit of no preceding equals.

Wisdom Needed
May God give us wisdom that we may so plan, that our posterity shall look with pride upon their inheritance and proclaim to the world that their forefathers laid well the foundation.

Civilizations have grown because they had an abundance of pure water and have died when that water was wasted and lost.

We Must Make Our Choice
We have it in our power to use the wealth of these times to lengthen our national life period, or by procrastination and neglect to do the right thing at the right time, we have the power to greatly shorten the span of centuries of our national supremacy and existence. We are living so and using up our bountiful resources so rapidly, that greater wisdom is going to be needed by us than by any preceding civilization.

Shall we meet the challenge of our times?

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The Challenge of the times is ours;
The parting of the ways is known;
The past bequeathed us wondrous powers;
The present shows our work undone.

Great wars have called for heroes brave,
Great crisis bring us leaders true,
Misfortunes opened hearts that gave
The limit of our substance, too.

The days of pioneering have not passed,
Our deeds of wisdom surely will be shown
To future generations. We will cast
The fetters hard, or break them be it known.

Shall we conserve, or shall we waste
The great inheritance of water pure?
The future comes in wondrous haste
To test our works, that must endure.

Our Challenge
We challenge you as sons of our pioneer fathers, that we exemplify their spirit and conquer this invading foe of annual destroying floods and devastating droughts ad pioneers in Water Conservation.

Posterity
We have no right to say to our children that we are afraid and too selfish to organize and battle this foe of our times, which we have brought upon ourselves by our greed, neglect and exploitation of our natural resources.

Thinking Through
Adversity and calamity are the natural schoolmasters, which develop, train and uncover the latent powers of initiative and genius in our thinkers.

Time To Apply Remedies
Remedies can be developed only on sick or maimed patients by doctors. When the social, economic and physical structure of the community, state or national entity are passing through some general adversity or calamity, it is possible to apply the known remedies for the cure of the diseased body politic or wasting natural resources.

Psychological Moment
Floods, droughts, deforestation and erosion, with the depression have created the psychological condition to force us into action to apply the necessary remedies for the conservation of our natural resources and the rehabilitation of our approaching desert conditions.

For over a third of a century I have been preaching the necessity of a complete water conservation programs for the beneficial uses of water; but it took the drought and depression of the last five years to bring the general public to realize the importance of united action in our state.

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Cooperation Necessary
Ohio is now organizing our watershed into large conservation districts for general cooperation of the local and the state governments with the federal government. By this kind of intergovernmental cooperation only can we expect to spread the benefits and accomplish for all concerned the maximum good to everybody.

Aim of State
A complete program of source stream control and reservoir storage of surplus flood waters and controlled drainage for beneficial uses is the necessary project and aim of our state.

What Program Must Include
This program must include reforestation of our rough and untillable lands, with all the methods of erosion control in hill farming, with controlled drainage systems for better irrigation of growing crops, with a fish pond on every farm so as to retain a greater part of the run-off on the farm; then when the large flood control and water conservation reservoirs and “Little Waters” are in operation, we can guarantee to all our people and posterity the maximum water supplies for all demands and benefits; then the Hydrological Cycle will be restored to a normal balanced operation.

We Must Get The Vision
It is my hope and prayer that we will get this vision for our state and the entire nation. We have no right to waste our bountiful inheritance and gifts of annual natural rainfall and sunshine by neglecting to practice the necessary thrift and practical wisdom of the harmonious workings of the laws of nature.

As pioneers in water conservation we must begin to practice and put into operation the remedies taught us by the calamities we have created.

Respectfully submitted,

David C. Warner

Executive Secretary
STATE WATER CONSERVATION BOARD


94
Tell of the formation of Great Salt Lake.
Show on a sand table how lakes were formed.
Place a wet cloth in the room. Feel of it in an hour. What has become of the water?
Place the same amount of water in each of the two shallow dishes. Cover one. Set both together and observe each day to see whether the amount of water in each is still the same.

Place the same amount of water in each of the two containers. Heat one. From which does the water evaporate first? What has heat to do with the rate of evaporation? When water is hot what do you see easing from it? What becomes of the steam?

Show how an underground river is formed.

Tell the cause of peculiar rock formations caused by water such as: Natural Bridge of Virginia.

Atmosphere’s Pressure. Fill a tumbler with water. Cover with sheet of paper; hold firmly and invert. 

Observe – Why does it stay? Put pencil under paper. Why does it come off quickly?

Guage (sic) a cardboard box for the base; a small quantity of a mixture of one part of sand and two parts of cement; a tin container about eight inches in diameter and ten inches deep a small quantity of white and black enamel; an unvarnished ruler.

Secure a heavy cardboard box about one foot square and four inches deep as a mould for the base. Pour this almost full of cement. While the mixture is soft, press into it to a depth of two inches a large tin container, such as a coffee can which has straight sides and a flat bottom.

When the cement has hardened, tear away the cardboard box from the base. Enamel the piece of apparatus white. On the sides of the container, such as a coffee can which has straight sides and a flat bottom.

When the cement has hardened, tear away the cardboard box from the base. Enamel the piece of apparatus white. On the sides of the container, pain the letters, “Rain Gauge” with black enamel.

Place the gauge on a flat surface in the open, away from trees or buildings so the rain may fall straight into it. After it rains use the unvarnished ruler to measure the depth of the rainfall, as a filling station operator measures the amount of gasoline in the tank of an automobile by means of a rulerlike gauge.

A good project would be the damming up of a small creek to make a fish pool and also afford a water supply for other wild life. 

The study begins with a mapping out of the area to be used and the map kept for frequent reference. The relief type of map is the best even if it is not exactly correct. This is followed by a general survey of the area during which specimens of animals are collected and preserved for future study, or brought into the building for culturing. Each specimen collected is carefully marked with the exact time of taking (date and time of day) as well as a description of the location and environmental factors under which it was living. This data is systematically filed for later reference. If the map is laid off into regular quadrangles, the collecting survey can be done thoroughly and completely. After the survery is complete the compiling of the data into tables or other forms takes place and a setting up of the life problems that each species must meet is taken care of. The explanation of the ways in which those are solved in nature, necessitates the study of elementary morphology and the more important elements of physiology.

From the facts discovered in the study of the foregoing, the students should be able to deduce many of the principles of ecology, such as:

a.	The correlation between structures and the factors of the environment in which each type of organism lives.
b.	Food requirements of different animals and its relation to habitat.
c.	Relationships between parasites and their hosts.
d.	Relationships between preying forms and their prey.
e.	Relationships between parasites and their hosts.
f.	The effects of over population, pollution and the removal of natural homes.
g.	Relation of insects to pollination, microorganisms to health. Once those principles are established it is easy to see the reason why ecological problems so often become economic in their importance.
Whether the objective is game management or more comprehensive wild life management, a small dam on a creek, (or better, a series of dams), will be a contribution to the fundamental betterment of the environment, appreciated by winged and four-footed creatures of many sorts and from many habitats. 


95-A
(Illustrations)


95-B
(Illustrations)


96

WEEDS

Ragweed. Ambrosia trifida. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Stem – It is a stout, tough, woody stem. It is widely branched, rough and covered with bristly hairs. It is from 4-10 feet in height; on good fertile soil grows from 12-15 feet in height. It is a huge, coarse plant. Leaves – They are either alternate or opposite. Are rough, hairy, and vary in shape. They are three lobed, deeply cut and are often one foot in length. Some are ovate and some are lance-shaped. Flowers – Staminate flower spikes are from 6-12 inches in length. The fertile flowers cluster in the axils of the top leaves of the plant. Fruit – The seeds are called “kingheads” because they catch in screen wire by means of their tiny horn. The fruit is a quarter of an inch long and is brown. It is cone-shaped at one end and is surrounded by 5 or 6 shorter spines.

HABITAT: Grows in moist, rich soil in fields, wastelands, and wheat fields. It is common and a native of Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: These seeds can be separated from wheat by immersing the grain in water. The wheat seeds will sink to the bottom and the weed seeds will float on the top. These seeds retain their viability in the soil for years. Common cause of hay-fever.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The following birds feed upon this weed: Quail, Sparrow, Mourning Dove, Bluebird, Meadowlark, Woodpeckers, Finches, Grosbeaks, Black Duck, Cowbird, and Blackbird. Cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs are very fond of this plant.

Wild Chicory. Cichorium intybus. L.

DESCRIPTION: Stem – 2-4 feet tall. Changes from green to purplish red with age. Becomes hard and woody. Hollow, round, branched and sparsely hairy. Juice is milky, and very bitter. Leaves – Basal leaves are tufted, lie on the ground very similar to dandelion leaf. From 4-8 inches long. Have rough surface. Stiff hairs on the under side. Stem leaves small. Flowers – Are from 1-4, held together in a cluster. Open one at a time in the bright sunshine and are closed by noon. The color is a very pretty azure blue, pink, sometimes white. Flowering period – From July to October. 

HABITAT:  In city vacant lots, along roadsides, in fields, meadows, pastures, and cultivated lands. It is very common in southwestern Ohio. Perennial.   

INTERESTING FACTS: In Europe, this plant is cultivated and several roots are dried, sent to United States for use as a substitute for coffee. Is considered a wholesome beverage. Also used in Europe as an herb, a salad. The roots and leaves used as forage for cattle and sheep. The pure food law in the United States forbids the use of chicory as an adulterate without notification on the label. Chicory easily detected in coffee by putting a spoonful in a glass of water; coffee will stay on top and the chicory will separate, discolor the water and settle to the bottom. In roasted coffee, chicory added, gives coffee stronger color. Added to mild coffee, gives it flavor. Sold as coffee and chicory.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Seed impurity in grass and in clover seeds. Goldfinch feeds upon seeds. Food for man.

Roman Ragweed. Ambrosia elatior. L. 

DESCRIPTION:  Stem – It is slightly ridge, erect, and generally much branched. It is from 5-5 feet tall. The entire plant is somewhat rough, as it is covered with whitish hairs. Leaves – Either opposite or alternate petioled leaves, are two or three times pinnately divided into thin, narrow, blunt or pointed lobes. Leaves are pale green beneath. Flowers – Staminate are small, and greenish, and on spikes. The carpellate are in a cup-shaped whorl of small leaves, enclosing the flower clusters. Flowering period – August to frost. Fruits – Seeds are dark brown and very small, and are equipped with six sharp spines.

HABITAT: It grows in rather dry soil along roadsides, also in pastures and cultivated fields. It is general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: This weed is the cause of “hay-fever.” The word “ambrosia” means “food for the gods.” The seeds are found among clover seeds. This plant is a native of Europe, but it has now become the universal weed of Ohio grain fields.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It is an unsightly and disagreeable weed. It is common wherever crops are grown. It is fought as a nuisance by most farmers, but is sometimes


97
Roman Ragweed. (Continued)

used as winter hay. One plant may produce 5000 seeds. It is an annual. It is food for birds; such as, Quail, Snow Bunting, Bluebird, Meadowlark, Sparrow, etc.

Lamb’s quarters. (Pigweed). Chenopodium album. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: - Root – It extends directly into the ground and has a few smaller side roots. Stem – It is light green, slender, and much branched. It is grooved when dry. Leaves – They are alternate, toothed and white – soft in texture beneath and green on both sides. They are spikelike in appearance. Flowering period – From July through September. Fruit – It is a flattened, circular pod that contains one lens-shaped black seed.

HABITAT: It grows in fertile soils and cultivated fields as well as the wastelands. It is general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: In Europe the seeds of this plant have been used in bread making and were welcomed for this purpose during the Russian famine of the early nineties. The seeds were also used in making the granulations in the leather called “shagreen;” it is also used as “greens.”

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: When plowed under, the plant adds organic matter and potash to the soil. Produces as many as 500,000 seeds per plant per season. Unsightly weed. Common impurity in clover seed, grain, timothy, and alfalfa. It provides food and shelter for birds; such as, Quail, Ring-necked pheasant, Black Duck, Pine Grosbeak, Snow Bunting, Sparrow, and many others. Provides cover for small animals. It harbors fungi and insects destructive to beets, spinach, and other plants of goosefoot family. An annual.

Pigweed – Redroot. Amarantus retroflexus. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Root – It is reddish, small and extends directly into the ground with a few smaller side roots. Stem – It is tall, erect, branched, and rough. Leaves – They are alternate, simple, and are pointed at each end. They are a dull green and rough. Their margin is unbroken. Flowers – Are small, greenish, and in dense, upward pointed clusters at the end of the branches. Flowering period – From July through September. Seed – Are small lens-shaped and are notched at the narrow end. They are glassy and black. One seed per flower and many on each plant.

HABITAT: It grows in fertile soil, as well as in the wastelands. It is general and abundant; in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: This weed is sometimes used as “greens.” The Seeds can remain in the soil for years and retain its viability. It is from Tropical America and grows throughout North America, except in the extreme north. It is sometimes called “redroot,” because the root is reddish in color.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: This weed provides food and shelter for birds; such as, Quail, Ring-necked Pheasant, Black Duck, Snow Bunting, Pine Grosbeaks, Sparrow, Cowbird, and many others. It also provides shelter for small animals. It is grazed by pigs. It removes a considerable amount of nitrates from the soil. It is also a common seed impurity. This weed is readily destroyed while young.


Pokeweed. Phytolacca Americana. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Roots – Large, fleshy, and white. Stem – Smooth, stout, tall, usually reddish and juicy. Sometimes simple or branched. Leaves – Alternate, simple, smooth, and lance-shaped. Red in the fall. Flowers – Small stalked, greenish white and in clusters which appear in the summer. Fruits – Ten seeded deep purple, juicy berries growing in drooping clusters.

HABITAT: A plant of the wasteland and also of deep, moist, fertile soils. General and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Both the root and berries are used in medicine. Juice of the berries is used in coloring wines. The crushed plant has an unpleasant odor. Roots and uncooked berries are poisonous to men. Native of America. Ointment is made from the plant for the treatment of ringworm, rheumatism, and also for relieving itching and inflammation of the eyes. Grows from 3-12 feet high and dies back to the root each year. When poisoned by this plant, the patients usually recover, however some

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Pokeweed. (Continued)

Cases prove fatal. Cattle occasionally eat the plant and are sometimes poisoned fatally. It has been introduced into Europe as an ornamental plant, and grows abundantly in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. In some localities, the young and tender shoots are gathered in the spring and cooked like asparagus or spinach. It is far better not to eat it in any form. Halictus bees are its principal insect visitors in flowering time.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Food for opossum and birds; such as, Robin, Quail, Bluebird, Flicker, Catbird, Cedar Waxwing, and others. A perennial.


Pigeon Grass or Green Foxtail. Chaetochloa viridis. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – Erect, simple, or branched. Tufted at the tip. Leaves – Blades are dark green, usually roughened above, as well as on margins. Flowers – Spikelets found in tufted tips. Each spikelet is preceded by a cluster of one to three slender, upwardly barbed, green bristles. Flowering period – From midsummer to end of the season. Fruit – Seeds nearly size of red clover seeds. Oval and somewhat flattened, generally the two faces are equally convex. Some seeds retain the whitish outer covering, and some are free from it. Dull, granular and either brown and mottled or light colored and tinged with yellow or green. There are two external scales of firm texture, the large one covering one face and folding over edges of the other. Just within the edges of this large scale, there are two strips of polished surface which are separated by the dull, granular and often mottled, remainder of the lower surface scale.

HABITAT: In rich, cultivated fields, gardens, lawns, meadows, and also wastelands. General in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Originally came from Europe. The tufted tip resembles the tail of a fox and is known by the name “Greem foxtail”. The seeds are distributed by means of animals, hay, grain, and grass seeds.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Seeds nature with clover which are the common impurities of that seed crop. It is food for the English Sparrows. It has been found that during two months time that 90 per cent of the weeds eaten by one Sparrow were pigeon grass seeds. The Quail and Slate-colored Junco eat these seeds. A single plant may produce from 60,000 to 140,000 per season. This weed is also a food for sheep which is a means in controlling its spread. It is an annual weed.


Pigeon Grass or Yellow Foxtail. Chaetochloa glauca. L.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – Erect, branched at the base. Tufted at the tip. Leaves – Blades rather wide and flat. Flowers – Spikelets found in tufted tips. Bristles in the dense head are upwardly barbed. Yellow heads. Fruit – Seeds somewhat larger than red clover seeds. Mostly light colored, tinged either with yellow or green, but sometimes brown. Oval, one face being strongly convex or arched, the other plane or strictly concave. The convex face is finely ridged crosswise, the wrinkles extending over the border of the opposite face. The scale forming the concave center of the flat face is less strongly wrinkled. Thin, whitish husk, covers the flat face. One of the scales is distinctly five veined and reaches the middle of the convex face.

HABITAT: Rich, cultivated fields, gardens, lawns, meadows, and waste places. General in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: This plant is also called a “Foxtail” grass because the tufted tip resembles a foxtail.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Seeds found in red clover seeds. Food for English Sparrows, Quails, Cowbirds, Song Sparrows, Mourning Dove, and many other birds. Annual weed.


Smartweed – Knotweed. Persicaria pennsylvania. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – It is erect, simple, tall, hairy above and smooth below. Woody when old. Branching and sprawling. Leaves – Thin, alternate, lance-shaped, pointed, and from 2-10 inches in length with short petioles. The plant is called “Lady’s Thumb” because of the peculiar marking on the leaves. Flowers – Dark pink on a dense, stout, oblong, erect spike and clusterlike. Flowering period – July to October. Fruit – A brown or black seed. Is smooth and shiny.

HABITAT: Grows in pastures, meadows, corn fields, and ditches. It is also found in moist soil, damp grasslands, waste places, and along streams. General in Ohio.

99
Smartweed – Knotweed. (Continued)
INTERESTING FACTS: This plant is a pest in clover fields, because it ripens its seeds about the time clover is ready to cut. The flower is frequently affected with a fungus or smut which turns the flower into a mass of purple spores. This destroys its fruit and benefits the farmer because the fruit does not mature. There is an interesting legend concerning the marks on the leaves.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: The seeds are eaten by the birds and carried to different parts of the country. This weed is also eaten by sheep.


Cat-tail. Typha latifolia. L. 

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Roots – Come from rhizomes, (an underground, rootlike stem), that are composed of thickened tuberlike materials. There are buds and scalelike leaves present. Live from year to year just under the soil surface. They are starchy. Stem – Stout and tall, and unbranched. Leaves – Narrow, erect, ribbonlike, and green. Flowers – Small, clustered closely at the top of stem in club-shaped structures. Seal-brown pistillate flowers are crowned in the spring by yellow masses of pollen, which is carried by the wind. The male flowers are yellow and the female flowers are brown. Fruit – Seeds. Very small and hard with abundant fluff.

HABITAT: Marshes and other wet places. General in Ohio. It is a perennial.

INTERESTING FACTS: The Rhizomes are rich in starch and yield a flour that is similar to rice and corn flour in composition. A well infested swamp land may give from 2-4 tons of flour per acre. This commercial use has frequently been discussed. The pollen makes an excellent grade of bread. The Iroquois Indians made flour for bread pudding and also boiled the fresh roots forming a syrup for their corn meal pudding. The silky down of cat-tails is used in dressing wounds and for upholstering. Leaves are used in bottoming chairs and plaiting mats. During the World War, it was used to manufacture artificial silk and used as a substitute for cotton. Pollen-inflammable. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: In marshes where cat-tails grow are found the Little Marsh Wren, Bittern Rails, Crebes, and Red-winged Blackbird. Provides homes for frogs and other marsh animals. Not troublesome in fields.


Bur-reeds – Great Bur-reed. Sparganium eurycarpum. Engelm

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Rhizomes are creeping rootstocks, maybe erect or floating. Stem – It is from 3-7 feet in height. Is stout, erect, simple, and is sometimes branched. Leaves –The deep green leaves are mostly flat, long and ribbonlike. They are alternate and sheathing. Flowering period – From May until August. Fruit – Green fruit is a burlike sphere composed of nutlets, wedge-shaped below, and flattened above, with abrup (sic) point in the center. The appearance not unlike that of a pineapple. 

HABITAT: It is an aquatic plant. Thriving best in ditches, on borders of ponds, lakes, rivers and other wet places. It is general in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: The heads of this plant are separated by a space on the stem. The staminate flowers are above and the pistillate are below the space. The plant is largely self-pollinating, being assisted sometimes by the aquatic insects and flies. It is a large graceful plant. 

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: It is food and shelter for birds; such as, Ruddy Duck, Red-winged Blackbird, Marsh Wren and other aquatic marsh birds. It also supplies food and shelter for marsh animals. It is a perennial.


Sensitive Pea – Partridge Pea – Large flowered Pea.
Chamaecrista fasciculate. L. Moench.

DESCRIPTION: Plant: Stem – Erect or spreading widely branched. Grows from 1’-2’ high. Hairy and sometimes nearly smooth. Leaves – Pinnate, from 10-15 pairs of leaflets, and one terminal. All somewhat sensitive. Flowers – Two to four showy flowers, each measuring an inch or more across, growing on a slender stalk. It fully expands only four of its five bright yellow petals, which are unequal in size. The upper petals (2-3) have touch of red or purple at base. Flowering period – July – September. 


100
Sensitive Pea. Partridge Pea. Large flowered Pea.
(Continued)

Fruit – Pod is flat with many seeds and cross partitions. Hairy and sometimes smooth.

HABITAT: In dry, sandy soil. Rather general and abundant in Ohio.

INTERESTING FACTS: Leaves slowly turn their outer edges uppermost after sunset; overlapping as they flatten themselves against their common stem until the entire aspect of the plant is changed. By day, the entire foliage is feathery. The leaves respond slowly to vibration. A dangerous plant in pastures owing to its cathartic properties. It is particularly harmful to sheep although horses and cattle suffer likewise. In Oklahoma, the plant is sometimes called “sheep kill,” in reference to its poisonous properties. In Georgia and Florida, the plant is considered an important source of honey nectar, not only from the flowers, but also from nectaries at the base of leaf stalks.

RELATION TO CONSERVATION: Game birds, migrants, and rovers feed upon the seeds. Birds help wider distribution of seeds.

(Illustration)


101

PLANTING FOR WILD LIFE

Plantings should always be made with a definite objective in view. With wild life plantings, the objective is usually to provide food and cover for those species which are in need of protection. Plantings made about school grounds or camps should also be considered in the light of their ornamental as well as utility value. Frequently plantings may be made to serve a number of purposes such as shrub or vine plantings in gullies to stop erosion and at the same time provide cover and food for certain kinds of wild life. Again, a tree such as a mulberry may be planted in a school yard for ornamental purposes, for class room study, for shade, and to provide fruit for some of our nesting birds. Well planned planting is efficient and economical and serves as a good object lesson to children and adults for the proper manipulation of our wild life resources.

The wood using industries are turning more and more to the farm woodlot for their raw material, which can be managed as a short time crop, particularly for farm implements, household goods, hockey sticks, baseball bats, umbrella handles, toys, boxes, ties, artificial limbs, pulp wood, butter tubs, pails and containers, clothes pins, posts, poles, excelsior, and many other quick uses, favoring particularly ash, basswood, maple, aspen birch, willow, pine, and spruce.

The removal of marginal or submarginal land from crop production is important to agricultural recovery in establishing a proper land use program. Their removal from agricultural competition is important to the economic recovery of agriculture. These lands, if used for a crop to which they are better suited, perhaps a forest crop, and then given proper protection and management, may yield another “golden egg to the farmers’ market basket.” Farm forestry is also essentially an agricultural activity, being vitally related to crop production and profitable use of questionable food producing lands.

In the cutting and future management of the woodlot, we need to recognize the definite relationship that exists to future wild life in the region. Upland game particularly, is partial to hardwoods and conifers for spring nesting grounds. For summer feeding they favor young growth up to ten years of age or brushy pasture land. For food in the fall and for winter range and shelter, preference is given to denser, larger coniferous or hardwood areas. Woodlot and forest management properly correlated with game development, will assure the highest economic use of a large proportion of our marginal lands. Coordination between forest management and game management on a given area is fundamental.

The farm owner should be induced to become a partner in game restoration. Forest and game restoration are too closely associated to be ignored. It is certain that no Aladdin’s lamp can possibly be expected to help solve our future game problem. We must help to encourage and develop the latent production possibilities of our natural game covers. We should encourage the stabilization of forest and game on much of our lands.

Game cannot exist on farm areas today without the interest and help of the owner. Perhaps a friendlier relationship between the farmer and the sportsmen can now be developed. We must sooner or later recognize the right of the landowner to get some returns from game which he feeds, protects and develops on his farm, be those financial benefits direct or indirect. Surely the state should encourage landowners to promote game production, for such efforts will benefit the rest of the state by supplying additional birds and augmenting the state’s game production program. Production programs for game plus the encouragement and development of natural areas must be stimulated to meet the annual “kill” demands of persons who pay for hunting opportunities.


THE FARM WOODLOT AS A BIRD REFUGE

The farm woodlot can be made to serve as a bird refuge by the adoption of museums usually followed in the creation of any bird refuge. The first step is to protect the birds from their enemies.

Provision of plenty of nesting sites is the second stop in the development of a woodlot into a bird refuge. Nest boxes are usually necessary now, for there no longer exists an abundance of dead and decaying trees which formerly provided natural homes for many forest birds.


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APPENDIX

FIELD TRIPS.

Field trips designed to point out natural phenomena of particular interest, such as evidence of erosion, rodent injury, wild life coverts, food areas, dens, tracks and wild life depletion for:

Birds – early morning trips – Plants – trees – flowers – weeds – Insects – abundance – destructive and beneficial types – control by natural means – Animals – game and non-game – economic importance – Fish – pond and stream types – fish habitats – food and covers-other vertebrates – reptiles – amphibians – etc.

ADDITIONAL CAMP AND CLUB PROJECTS.
Making wild flower garden for the camp.
Collection of seeds utilizes by wild animals.
Making a conservation exhibit.
Measuring distances by pacing.
Making a museum for the camp.
Organizing nest rescue squads.
Construct and erect bird houses on camp site.
Club conservation exhibits – county and state fairs.
Build feeding stations on camp sites.
Campaigns for observation of game laws.
Make bird shelters.
Taking part in community programs: as observance of Arbor and Bird Day.
Conduct a camp conservation newspaper.
Establishing a local bird or wild life refuge.
Make plantings of food and cover plants about the camp site.
Making a wild life census.
Building a camp library.
Trips to state parks and local scenic areas.
Building permanent feeding stations.
Making small gully control dams.
Strip cropping and contour furrows.
Use and construction of deflectors in streams.
Fish shelters.
How to handle fire arms.
How to handle game, fish.
How to build camp fires.
How to cook game.
How to prevent forest fires.
Constructing small reservoirs.
Demonstrations such as “casting.”
Wild life as photography subjects.
How much wild life is raised on your farm?
Fur resources.
Know Ohio Game Laws.
What are the Ohio game animals and fish?
Fence row improvement.

HONOR CODE OF THE WOODS AND WATERS

First of all, “play fair” with all outdoors. Be a real sportsman to all the world, whether men, beast, bird or flower.

Have a proper contempt for the killing of wild life for sale, and refuse to buy wild game or trophies in the market; a true sportsman kills his own game, and then kills only for himself and family.

No matter how much fish or game the law allows as a bag limit, take no more than you reasonably need. Make your aim not merely to see how much you can catch or kill, but conservation and propagation for another day, both for yourself and for the generations yet to come. Fish are not all of fishing nor “meat in the pot” any great part of hunting.

Never pull wild flowers recklessly or let them wither and be thrown away. Never be such a “poor sport” as to gather wild flowers for sale.

Never rob a bird’s nest. It is both cruel and unfair.


103

Be careful never to do anything that may start a forest fire. It kills valuable timber that it will take many years to grow again. It spoils the beauty of the outdoors, and destroys the cover and protection for birds and wild animals. It often burns up the nests and young birds, and even burns up young game animals.

Never fish nor hunt on farm lands without the owner’s permission. Never leave gates open, injure or alarm the farmer’s cattle, shoot near his house or his stock, take his fruit, nor trample down his crops. Not only respect the farmer’s rights your self, but report to him and assist him in bringing to justice any others who break the laws protecting these rights.

Never, under any circumstances, shoot until you see clearly what you are shooting.


MATERIALS AND DEVICES FOR USE IN SCIENCE WORK

A.	CEMENT FOR AQUARIUM GLASS
1.	Material
1 qt. very fine sand.
1 qt. monolithic plastic cement. (Get at any building supply house.)
1 lb. litharge. (Drugstore).
20 oz. resin.
Raw linseed oil.
2.	Method
Mix together thoroughly. Use enough linseed oil to form stiff paste. Above proportions make about 1 gallon – use smaller portions if a smaller amount is desired.
Support pieces of glass so cement can be pressed into cracks leaving no air holes.
Allow to set several hours.

B.	CEMENT FOR FISH PONDS – BIRD BATHS – ETC.
1.	Material
1 part cement.
1 1/2 or 2 parts clean fine sand.
3 parts gravel.
water
trowel.
2.	Method
Mix with just enough water to make a consistency that can be formed into shape with a trowel. Put in mold or frame of desired shape and allow to set. To make surface smooth, make a paste of dry cement and water and apply with a brush after the foundation has set. Sprinkle occasionally: too rapid drying will cause cement to crack.
C.	CEMENT FOR WATERPROFFING (sic)
1.	Material
1 part 10% hydrated lime.
3 parts cement (finely pulverized).
Water
2.	Method
Mix to consistency of thick cream. Roughen or scratch surface to be waterproofed. 
D.	MODELING MATERIAL FOR ANIMALS AND LAND FORMS
1.	Material
Old paper towels.
Pail.
Water.
Clay.
2.	Method
Take old paper towels, cover with water, boil 2 hours. Drain carefully, then mix with clay. The resulting material will mold more easily, and be more durable than clay.
E.	PAPER MACHE FOR MODELING ANIMALS
1.	Material
Plaster of Paris.
Water.
Vinegar.

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Sticks of wood.
Newspaper.
Cloth.

2.	Method
Make a framework of wood and newspapers. Cover with cloth to secure the form desired; i.e., mountains, valleys, hills, etc.
Mix plaster of Paris with water to consistency of thin dough. Coat the frame with a layer of plaster of Paris. When dry, paint with kalsomine paints. Too rapid hardening of the plaster may be prevented by mixing a little vinegar with it.
F.	SALT AND FLOUR FOR BIRDS, FISH, OR MAPS.
1.	Material
2 parts salt.
1 part flour.
Water.
2.	Method
Mix salt and flour together, add enough water to make about consistency of paste. Draw outline of bird; apply mixture with knife or tooth pick. Dry, then paint with water colors and cover with shellac.
G.	DOLLS TO REGISTER HUMIDITY
1.  Material
Few crystals of cobalt chloride.
Water.
White cloth.
Dolls.
H.	FLOWER PRESS
1.	Material
2 boards, 9 inches by 12 inches by 1/2 inch.
4 cleats. 1 1/2 inches by 7 inches by 7 inches by 3/4 inch.
8 one-inch screws.
2 straps long enough to go around press when fillers are in, or use two stove bolts, 6 inches by 1/4 inch, with wing screws.
Newspaper or folded blotters.
2.	2. Method
Screw the cleats on the beards about two inches from each end.
If straps are used, fasten around press just inside of cleats.
Cloth straps with adjustable buckles are recommended. If bolts are used, bore a half-inch hole through each board in the middle of the cleat. Be sure to mark accurately so the holes will be opposite each other making the boards fit together perfectly.
I.	SPLATTER PRINTS
1.	Material
a.	Leaf or flowers.
b.	Toothbrush or atomizer.
c.	Colored ink, dye, or Devoe’s Show Card Paint.
d.	Tin pan for drain pan.
e.	Frame covered with fine mesh mosquito screen.
f.	Drawing paper.
2.	Method
Pin flower or leaf or drawing paper. Lay under screen. With toothbrush or atomizer, splatter the paper with the colored liquid through the screen. When a sufficient amount is on the paper, dry. Remove leaf and draw in midrib and veins.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amphibians

FROGS, TOADS AND TURTLES

BOOKS: -

Dickerson, Mary C. – The Frog Book – Doubleday, Doran and Company; 1906.
Needham, James G. and Lloyd, J.T, - Life of Inland Waters – Charles C. Thomas, 
Publisher; Springfield, Ill. 1930.
Stejnger, L & Barbour T. – A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles -  
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; 1932.


PAMPHLETS:-

Clark, H.W. & Southal, J.B. – Fresh Water Turtles – Washington Printing Office, 1920.
Schmidt, Karl P. – Frogs and Toads of the Chicago Area – Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Ill., 1929.
General Biological Supply House – The Study of Living Frog Eggs in the Laboratory – A Miniature Vivarium; 761-763 East 69th Place, Chicago, Ill.


MAGAZINES

Cochran, Doris M. – When is a Toad Not a Toad? (Distinction between a toad and a lizard). Nature Magazine, Vol. 19. No. 1, January 1932, p. 28.

Cochran, Doris M. – Our Friend, The Frog – (Splendidly illustrated study of frogs). 
National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 81 No. 5, May 1932.

Dolman, Helen – Hunting Water Sprites – (The Salamander, from eggs to maturity).
Nature Magazine, Vol. 23, No. 4, April 1934. Pp. 167-169.

Dyer, Walter A. Friar Toad, The Garden’s Patron Saint – (Uses of the toad in the garden, and a description of how he lives) – Our Dumb Animals, Vol. 67, No. 1, January 1934, p.7.

Noble, Ruth C. – Pine Barren Pixies – (Tree Toads). Nature Magazine, Vol. 17, No.4. April 1931. Pp. 225-228.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS: -

Columbus – 15306D – Frog Song – Voice
Victor – 36033V – Little Turtle – Voice
Victor – G6-B – The Turtle – Violin


BIRDS

BOOKS: -

Allen, Arthur A. – Book of Bird Life – D. Van Nostrand Co. 1930.
American Bird Biographies – Comstock Publishing Company, Cornell Heights, Ithaca, New York, 1934.

Chapman, Frank M. – Birds of Ohio – The Weaton Publishing Co.

Forbush, Edward H. – Useful Birds and Their Protection – Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture; 1907.

Heilman, Gerard – Origin of Birds – D. Appleton-Century Company; 1927.

National Geographic Society – Book of Birds – 1928 – 1932.

Weed, Clarence M. & Dearborn, Ned – Birds in Their Relation to Man – J.B. Lippincot Company; 1924.

Wetmore, Alexander – Migrations of Birds – Harvard University Press; 1930.


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PAMPHLETS: -

Audubon, National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broadway, New York City. 

Brand, Albert R. – Hunting with a Sound Camera – (How Bird Songs are Transferred to Phonograph Records). Natural History, Vol. 33, No. 4, July – August, 1933, pp. 381-394.

Department of Natural Science, Nature Study
Illustrated:
No. 506 – Food of Well Known Birds
No. 630 – Birds Useful to the Farmer
No. 844 – Birds of Middle Atlantic States
No. 1456 – Homes for Birds
No. 1612 – Propagation of Aquatic Game Birds
No. 1613 – Propagation of Upland Game Birds
No. 1666 – Controlling Orchard Insect Pests
No. 1682 – Usefulness of Birds on the Farm, San Jose State College, San Jose, California.

General Biological Supply House – Bird Study as Field Work Subject for High School Pupils.
How to Prepare Bird Skins – 761-763 E. 69th Place, Chicago, Illinois. No. 41.

Government Printing Office – Birds and Wild Animals – Supt. Of Documents, Washington D.C. – Price List. No. 39.

Jones, Lynds – The Birds of Ohio – Special Papers #6. Ohio Academy of Science.

Preble, Edward A. Our Owls in Fable and Fact – Nature Magazine, Vol. 15, No. 3, March 1930, pp. 143-148, 188-189.

United States Department of Agriculture – Farmer’s Bulletin
No. 185 – Bird Migration
No. 1239 – Community Bird Refuges
No. 1456 – Homes for Birds
No. 513 – Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard (Colored pictures, short descriptions).
No. 630 – Some Common Birds, Useful to the Farmer
No. 506 – Food of Some Well Known Birds of Forest, Farm and Garden, Office of Information, Washington, D.C.

Spurway, Kathleen Stiles – Wild Birds and Their Music – Normal Instructor, Vol. 39, No. 7, May 1930, pp. 38, 68.


MAGAZINE:-

Pierson, T. Gilbert – Woodpeckers, Friends of our Forests – National Geographic Magazine Vol. LXIII, No. 4, April, 1933, pp. 453-480. Illustrated.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS:-

Brunswick – 4396 – Birds at the Waterfall – Whistler.
Brunswick – 4396 – Bird and the Saxaphone – Whistler.
Brunswick – 134 – Birdie – Fiddle & Guitar
Brunswick – 16183 – Bird Songs at Eventide – Voice
Brunswick – 3385 – Bird Warblings – series 1 – Whistler
Brunswick – 3385 – Bird Warblings – series 2 – Whistler
Brunswick – 4455 – Bird with a Broken Pinion – Voice
Columbia – 33412 F – The Blackbird – Voice 
Columbia – 174 M – Blackbirds – Viola
Columbia – 33400 F – Mountain Lark – Voice
Columbia – 15511 D – Whistling Song Bird – Whistler
Victor – 20617 V – The Woodpecker – Voice


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FISH

BOOKS:-

National Geographic Society – Book of Fishes – National Geographic Society, 1924.

Needham, Jas. G and Lloyd, J.T. – Life of Inland Waters – Charles C. Thomas, Publisher; 1930.


PAMPHLETS:-

Field Museum of Natural History – The Pike, Pickerel, and Muskellunge – Grant Park, Chicago, Ill.

General Biological Supply House – Starting and Maintaining a Balanced Fresh Water Aquarium. No. 5. 761-763 E. 69th Place, Chicago, Ill.

Government Printing Office – Fishes – (Bulletins issued for each State). Price list No. 21. State Fish and Game Commission, Supt. of Documents, Washington D.C.


MAGAZINES:-

Bennet, Ernestine – Reading Stories in Nature Study – Grade Teacher, Vol. 50. No. 1, September 1932, pp. 37.

Carhart, Arthur Hawthorns – The Fighting Pike – (Life History). Nature Magazine Vol. 20. No. 4, October 1932, pp. 155-158.

Chapin, Clara Cutler – How to Make Your Fishes Like You – (Friendly Advice on essentials of Aquarium Keeping). Nature Magazine Vol. 17, No. 4, April, 1931, pp. 237-240.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS:-

Victor – 20073 V – Goldfish – Voice


FLOWERS

BOOKS:-

Matthews, F.D. – Books of Wild Flowers – (Very popular dependable guide. Human and informative. Told in unobtrusive narrative form. Flowers from early April to September described; well suited for young people, well illustrated). G.P. Putnam Sons, New York.


PAMPHLETS:-

Field Museum of Natural History –
No. 7 – Spring Wild Flowers
No. 8. – Spring and Early Summer Wild Flowers
No. 9. – Summer Wild Flowers
No. 10. – Autumn Flowers and Fruits
Grant Park, Chicago, Ill.

General Biological Supply House – Preserving Botanical Specimens – (Turtox) No. 3. 761-763 E. 69th Place, Chicago, Ill.

Government Printing Office
Price List No. 44 – Plants
No. 157 – Propagation of Plants
No. 218 – School Gardens
No. 1171 – Animal Flowering Plants

Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C.


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New York Biological Supply Co., 34 Union Square, New York City.

Schaffner, John H. – Revised Catalogue of Ohio Vascular Plants – Bulletin #25 Ohio Biological Survey, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

Wild Flower Preservation Society, 3740 Oliver Street, North West, Washington D.C. Zoology & Botany Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. IV. Published by Legislature of Ohio.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS:-

Columbus 1926 – D – Busy Bee – Orchestra
Brunswick 15123 – Butterfly Study – Piano
Victor 22165 – Moths & Butterflies – Voice


INSECTS

BOOKS:-

Doane, Rennie W. – Insects and Disease – Henry Holt & Co. Inc. 1910.
Downing, E.R. – Our Living World –Longaman, Green & Company; 1929.
Elliot, Ida M. and Soule, C.G. – Caterpillars and Their Moths – D. Appleton-Century Company; 1902.

Fabre, Jean H. – Life of the Caterpillar – Modern Library; (1916) – Life of the Fly – Hodder & Stoughton; 1913. Life of the Grasshopper  Dodd Mead and Company, (1933) Inc. Book of Insects – Dodd, Mead and Company, 1921. The Life and Love of the Insect – A. & C. Black, Ltd. 1911. Life of the Spider-Dodd, Mead and Company, Inc., 1913. Social Life in the Insect World – Ernest Benn, Ltd. 1929.

Hewitt, Charles G. – Houseflies and How They Spread Disease – G.P. Putnam’s Sons; 1912.

Holland, Williams J. – Butterfly Book – Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1931.

Howard, Leland, O. – The Insect Book – Doubleday, Doran & Company, 1905. The Insect Menance (sic) – D. Appleton-Century Co., 1931.

Lutz, Frank E. – Field Book of Insects – G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1921.

Maeterlinck, Maurice – The Life of the Bee – Dodd, Mead & Company, 1901. The Life of the White Ant – Dodd, Mead & Company,1927.

Metcalf, Clell L. and Flint. W.P. – Destructive and Useful Insects – McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1928.

Sanderson, Ezra D. – Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard – John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1912.

Weed, Clarence M. – Butterflies – Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1926.

Wheeler, William M. – Social Life Among the Insects – Harcourt, Brace & Co., Inc. 1923.


PAMPHLETS:-

Government Printing Office –

No. 41 – Insects
No. 447 – Bees
No. 701 – The Bagworm an Injurious Shade Tree Insect
No. 740 – House Ants
No. 1472 – Termites or White Ants
No. 1569 – Earthworms
No. 1601 – Collection and Preservation of Insects
Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C.

General Biological Supply House – How to Make on Insect Collection – Common Parasites – Insect Calls – Studying Ants in an Observation Nest – 761-763 69th Place, Chicago, Ill.

Johns & Averill – Moths and Butterflies – New York, Own Publishing Company


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Powers, M. – The World of Insects (A fascinating description of insects and their life, many drawings). Rockwell, 1931.

United States Department of Agriculture –
No. 1601 – Collection and Preservation of Insects for Study of Agriculture.
No. 1371 – Diseases and Insects of Garden Vegetables.
No. 363 – Japanese Beetle
Office of Information, Agriculture Department, Washington, D.C.


MAGAZINES:-

Nature Magazine
Chamblin, A.B. – Six-Legged Musicians – (Habits of Insect Singers.) Vol. 18, No. 2, August, 1931, pp. 92-96.

Furbay, John Harvey – About Earthworms – (Common beliefs that are false). American Forests, Vol. 40. 4, April 1934, pp. 166-167, 188.

Howes, Griswold Paul – Man’s Insect Friends – (Descriptive of helpful insects). Better Homes & Garden, Vol. 10, No. 11, July, 1932, pp. 13, 48-49.

Leonhardt, Rene – The Eyes of Moths – (Illustrative). Nature Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 6, December, 1933, pp. 267-270.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS:-

Columbia – 1962-B – Busy Bee – Orchestra

Brunswick – 15123 – Butterfly Study – Piano

Victor – 22165 – V – Moths & Butterflies – Voice


MAMMALS

BOOKS: -

Abbot, Charles Greely, - Smithsonian Scientific Series – Smithsonian Institution Series, 1930.

Anthony, H.E. – Field Book of North American Mammals – G.P. Putnam’s Sons. 1928.

Ballou, Frank W. – Elementary Science by Grades – D. Appleton & Co.

Bensley, Benjamine A. – Practical Anatomy of the Rabbit – P. Blakiston’s Sons & Company, 1910.

Borradaile, Lancelot A. – The Animal and Its Environment – Oxford University Press, 1923.

Brasher, Rex – Secrets of the Friendly Woods – Century Co., New York, 1930.

Compton’s Pictured Encyclopedia – Published by F.E. Compton & Co. Chicago, Ill.

Encyclopedia Americana – Americana Corporation, New York, 1929.

Encyclopedia Britannica – Encyclopedia Britannica, New York, 1929.

General Survey of Ohio – Zoology and Botany – Nevins & Myers, State Printers, 1882.

Gowans, Ethel – A Course in the Study of Animal Life in Nature Study – Hampton Institute Press, Hampton, Virginia, 1925.

Hornaday, William T. – Our Vanishing Wild Life – New York Zoological Society, 1913.

Jordan, David Starr, Manual of the Vertebrate Animals of U.S. – World Book Company, 1929.

Leopold, Aldo – Game Management – Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936.

Moseley, Edwin Lincoln – Our Wild Animals – Appleton, 1928.

National Geographic Society – Wild Animals of North America – Washington D.C.

Rogers, Julia E. Wild Animals Every Child Should Know – Grosset & Dunlap, New York, 1911.

Seton, Ernest T. Life Histories of Northern Animals – Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909. Wild Animals at Home – Doubleday, Doren & Co. 1913. Wild Animal Ways Hodder & Stoughton, 1930.

U.S. Department of Agriculture – Wild Life Handbook – (North Central Region) – Published by Forest Service.


110

PAMPHLETS:-

Enders, R.K. – Mammals of Ohio – University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Government Printing Office – Animal Industry – Price list No. 38. Birds and Wild Animals – Price list No. 39, Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C.


MAGAZINE:-

Sandoz, Mari – Musky – (The story of a lovable little muskrat). Nature Magazine Vol. 22, No. 5, November 1933, pp. 199-202.


PHONOGRAPH RECORDS:

Victor 20073 – V – The Bunny – Voice
Victor 20349 – V – The Bunny – Voice
Victor 20073 – V – The Squirrel – Voice


NATURAL SCIENCE

BOOKS:-

Comstock, A.B. – Handbook of Nature Study – Comstock Publishing Co. Ithaca, N.Y.

Craig, G.S. – Classroom Teacher – (Teaching of Science well planned for primary and intermediate grades. Would be help to any teacher of Science). Vols. V, VIII and IX. Classroom teacher, Inc. Chicago, Ill.

Craig, G.S. – Course of Study in Elementary Science for the Horace Mann School.
(A tentative course in elementary science for grades I-IV. Fills a long felt need for a well organized course. It not only provides a program of work for the grades, but provides excellent content and helps for the teacher). New York Bureau of Publications, Teacher’s College, Columbia University.

Hodge, Clifton F. – Nature Study and Life – Ginn & Company, 1902.

National Society for the Study of Education – Thirty-first Yearbook – (A program for teaching science). Part I, Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois, 1932.

Palmer, E.L. – Field Book of Nature Study – Slingerland, Comstock Co., Ithaca, New York, 1935.

Parker School District – Teachers’ Handbook for Natural Science in Elementary Schools, - Vol. I; Greenville, S.C. 1929.

Persing, E.C. and Thiele C.L. – Elementary Science by Grades, Book V – D. Appleton & Company, New York, 1930.

Wells, Harrington – The Teaching of Nature Study and the Biological Sciences, Christopher Publishing House, Boston, Mass., 1936.


PAMPHLETS:-

General Biological Supply House – 761-763 East 69th Place, Chicago, Ill.
A selected List of Books for the Biological Library
How to Prepare Microscope Slides of Simple Objects
Lantern Slides Any Teacher Can Make
Preparing and Caring for Herbarium Collection
The Use and Care of the Microscope
Turtox Plant and Animal – Identification service

Ward’s Natural Science Bulletin (Free to teachers) Box 24, Beechwood Station, Rochester, New York.


SLIDES:-

Publishers Distributing Service Inc. – Natural History Picture (including Animal Studies and Desert Studies, 24 Pictures in each set.) 704 South Spring


111
Street, Los Angeles, California.
Eastman Teaching Films, 355 State Street, Rochester, New York.
Educational Film Exchange, 1501 Broadway, New York City.
Key Stone View Company, Meadville, Pennsylvania.
Motion Picture Capitol, 51 East 42nd. Street, New York City.
Visual Text Sales Company, 1890 Crenshaw Boulevard, Los Angeles, California.


REPTILES

BOOKS:-

Ditmers, Raymond, L. – Reptiles of the World – McMillan Company, 1931.
Strange Animals I Have Known – Blue Ribbon Books; 1933.

Ditmers, Raymond L. – The Reptile Book – Doubleday, Page& Co. New York, 1907.


PAMPHLETS:- 

Barbeur T. and Stenger L. – A Check List of North American – Amphibians and Reptiles. Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1923.

Field Museum of Natural History – The Truth About Snake Stories – Grant Park. Chicago, Illinois.


MAGAZINES:-

Barnes, Will C. – Rattlers and Their Bites – American Forests, Vol. 39. No. 9, September, 1933, pp. 396-398, 429.

Brownell, L.W. – The Humble Way of the Snake – Nature Magazine Vol. 13, No. 5, March 1930. Pp. 161-165.


TREES AND SHRUBS

BOOKS:-

Illick, Joseph S. – Common Trees of Ohio – American Tree Association, Washington D.C., 1927.

Mathews, F.S. – Field Book of American Trees and Shrubs – G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London.

Sargent, Charles Sprague – Manual of the Trees of North America – Houghton Mifflin Company, 1933.


PAMPHLETS:-

American Forestry Association, 1727 K. Street, Washington, D.C.
American Museum of Natural History, Columbus Avenue and 77th Street, New York.
American Nature Association, 1213 Sixteenth Street, North West, Washington D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History – Common Trees – No.11. Grant Park, Chicago, Ill.
Government Printing Office-
Price List No. 43 – Forestry
No. 1208 – Trees for Town and City
No. 1481 – Planting the Roadside
No. 1567 – Propagation of Trees and Shrubs
No. 1591 – Transplanting Trees and Shrubs

Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C.
Living Tree Guild, 468 Fourth Avenue, New York City.
National Lumber Manufacturers Association, Washington D.C.
Pacific Lumber Company, 100 Bush Street, San Francisco, California. (Window boxes)


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United States Department of Agriculture – Forestry Facts – The Forest – (Handbook for Teachers) Agriculture Miscellaneous Circular 98. Primer of Forestry – Part I. Farmer’s Bulletin 173, Primer of Forestry – Part II, Farmers Bulletin 358, Washington D.C.


WATER

PHAMPLETS (sic):- 

Morgan, Ann Haven – Field Book of Ponds and Streams – G.P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, N.Y.

Palmer, E.L. – Cornell Rural School Leaflet – Cornell University (College of Agriculture) Ithaca, New York, 1933.

Person, H.S. – Little Waters – (A Study of headwater streams and other little waters, their use and relations to the land.) National Resource Committee Washington D.C.


WEEDS

PAMPHLETS:-

Field Museum of Natural History – Weeds. Poison Ivy – No. 12, Grant Park, Chicago, Illinois.

Government Printing Office – Weed Control – Bulletin No. 660, Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C.